Advanced High-Strength Steels

Application Guidelines

Microstructure: The contrast observed under a microscope when a flat ground surface is highly

polished, and then thermally or chemically etched. The contrast results from the presence of grain

boundaries and different phases, all of which respond differently to the etchant. A photomicrograph is

a picture of the resulting microstructure.

MFDC (Mid-Frequency Direct Current): MFDC has the advantage of both unidirectional and

continuous current.

Mild steel: Low strength steels with essentially a ferritic microstructure and some strengthening

techniques. Drawing Quality (DQ) and Aluminium-Killed Draw-Quality (AKDQ) steels are examples

and often serve as a reference base because of their widespread application and production volume.

Other specifications use Drawing Steel (DS), Forming Steel (FS), and similar terms.

Minor strain: The least strain at a given point in the sheet surface and always perpendicular to the

major strain. In a circle grid, the minor strain is the shortest axis of the ellipse. The press shop term

often is minor stretch.

MP (Multi-phase steel): See AHSS (Advanced High Strength Steels).

MPW (Magnetic Pulse Welding): A welding process that uses high electromagnetic force to

generate impact type weld.

Multiple stage forming: Forming a stamping in more than one die or one operation. Secondary

forming stages can be redraw, ironing, restrike, flanging, trimming, hole expansion, and many other

operations.

N

n-value: The work hardening exponent derived from the relationship between true stress and true

strain. The n-value is a measure of stretchability. See work hardening exponent.

Instantaneous n-value - The n-value at any specific value of strain. For some AHSS and

other steels, the n-value changes with strain. For these steels, a plot of log true stress versus

log true strain allows measurement of the slope of the curve at each point of strain. These

slope measurements provide the n-value as a function of strain.

Terminal n-value - The n-value at the end of uniform elongation, which is a parameter

influencing the height of the forming limit curve. In the absence of an instantaneous n-value

curve, the n-value between 10% elongation and ultimate tensile strength (maximum load)

from a tensile test can be used as a good estimate of terminal n-value.

Necking: A highly localized reduction in one or more dimensions in a tensile test or stamping.

Diffuse necking - A localized width neck occurring in tensile test specimens that creates the

maximum load identified as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

Local necking - A through-thickness neck that defines the forming limit curve and termination

of useful forming in the remainder of the stamping. No deformation takes place along the

neck. Further deformation within the local neck leads to rapid ductile fracture.

O

Overbend: Increasing the angle of bend beyond the part requirement in a forming process to

compensate for springback.

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Over\/Undercrown: A type of springback affecting the longitudinal camber of stampings such as rails

and beams.

P

Pearlite: A lamellar mixture or combination of ferrite and carbide.

Plastic deformation: The permanent deformation of a material caused by straining (stretch, draw,

bend, coin, etc.) past its elastic limit.

Post-annealing: An annealing cycle given to a stamping or portion of the stamping to recrystallize the

microstructure and improve the properties for additional forming operations or in-service

requirements.

PFHT (Post-Formed Heat-Treatable steel): Heating and quenching formed stampings off-line in

fixtures to obtain higher strengths. A broad category of steels having various chemistries is applicable

for this process.

Post-stretch: A stretch process added near the end of the forming stroke to reduce sidewall curl

and\/or angular change resulting from the stamping process. Active lock beads, lock steps, or other

blank locking methods prevent metal flow from the binder to generate a minimum of 2% additional

sidewall stretch at the end of the press stroke.

Preformed Part: A partially formed part which will be subjected to one or more subsequent

operations. Usually done after a blank die and prior to going into a draw die.

Press: A machine having a stationary bed or anvil and a slide (ram or hammer) which has a

controlled reciprocating motion toward and away from the bed surface and at right angle to it. The

slide is guided in the frame of the machine to give a definite path of motion.

Press Slide: The main reciprocating member of a press, guided in the press frame, to which the

punch or upper die is fastened. Sometimes called the ram, press ram, slide, plunger, or platen.

Process capability: The variation of key dimensions of parts produced from a die process compared

to the part tolerances.

Process variation: Two components make up process variation. One is the variation caused by

differences in run-to-run press and die setups. The second is the part-to-part variation within the

same run caused by process variables such as lubrication, cushion pressures, die temperatures, non-

uniform material, etc.

Punch: The male member of a complete die. Punches are divided into three categories: 1. Cutting

punches - effect cutting of the stock material, also called perforator and pierce punch. 2. Non-cutting

- the act to form deform the stock material. 3. Hybrid punches - both cutting and non-cutting functions

are combined in the same punch.

Punchline: The line between the draw die binder and the draw die punch in the plan view of the die

drawing.

Q

Quasi-static: Traditionally the strain rate during a tensile test, which is very slow compared to

deformation rates during sheet metal forming or a crash event.

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R

Recoil: The distortion of a part along the flange line where the part lifts off the die steel. This is

caused by insufficient pad pressure or by a pad that gives insufficient part coverage.

Redrawing: Second and following drawing operations in which the part is deepened and reduced in

cross-sectional dimensions.

Residual stresses: Elastic stresses that remain in the stamping upon removal of the forming load,

due to non-uniform deformation or temperature gradients from rapid cooling or welding. Residual

stresses are trapped stresses because the final geometry of the stamping does not allow complete

release of all elastic stresses. Restrike die: A secondary forming operation designed to improve part

dimensional control by sharpening radii, correcting springback, or incorporation of other process

features.

RSW (Resistance Spot Welding): Spot welding is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are

joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current. Work-pieces are held together under

pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm thickness range.

R-Value: see Anisotropy.

rm -

∆r -

S

Scoring: A build-up of metal from a sheet metal part on the surface of a steel. Also can be worn

grooves in the surface of a steel.

Servo Press: A servo press is a press machine that uses a servomotor as the drive source; the

advantage of the servomotor is that it can measure both the position and speed of the output shaft,

and vary these vs. having a constant cycle speed. In conventional mechanical presses, the press

cycles at constant speed and press loads develop slowly, building power to their maximum force at

bottom dead center (180 degree crank), and then they reverse direction. In comparison, the servo

press uses software to control press speed and power, thus is much more flexible.

Sheared edge stretchability: Reduced residual stretchability of as-sheared edges due to the high

concentration of cold work, work hardening, crack initiators, and pre-cracking at the sheared interface.

Shrink flanging: A bending operation in which a narrow strip at the edge of a sheet is bent down (or

up) along a curved line that creates shrinking (compression) along the length of the flange.

Sidewall curl: Springback resulting from metal moving over a radius or through draw beads. Curl is

characterized by an average radius of curvature.

Simulative formability tests: These tests provide very specific formability information that is

significantly dependent on deformation mode, tooling geometry, lubrication conditions, and material

behaviour. Examples include hemispherical dome tests, cup tests, flanging tests, and other focused

areas of formability.

Single action press: A press with a single slide to activate the die.

Skid Lines: Lines seen on the finished part when the stock slips on a draw punch. This is caused by

the die not being timed correctly or when the forming of a shape is at such an off angle.

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SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding): An arc welding process that uses coated electrodes,

sometimes referred to as Stick Welding.

Solid-State Welding: Welding processes that generate a weld with no evidence of melting in the

weld interface.

Spalling: The breaking off of flake - like metal particles from a metal surface.

Springback: The extent to which metal in the stamping deviates from the designed or intended

shape after undergoing a forming operation. Also the angular amount a metal returns toward its

former position after being bent a specified amount.

Spring-back Allowance: The allowance designed into a die for bending metal a greater amount than

specified for the finished piece, to compensate for spring-back.

Strain gradient: A change in strain along a line in a stamping. Some changes can be very severe

and highly localized and will have an accompanying increase in thickness strain.

Strain Hardening: The increase in strength of a metal caused by plastic deformation at

temperatures which are lower than the recrystallization temperature.Strain rate: The amount of strain

per unit of time. Used in this document to define deformation rate in tensile tests, forming operations,

and crash events.

Stress Cracking: The fracturing of parts which have retained residual stresses from cold forming,

heat treating, or rapid cooling.

SF (Stretch Flangeable steel): A specific customer application requirement to improve local

elongation for hole expansion and stretch flanging operations. A variety of special steel types may

meet these specific specifications.

Stretch flanging: A bending operation in which a narrow strip at the edge of a sheet is bent down (or

up) along a curved line that creates stretching (tension) along the length of the flange.

Stress Relief (Relieving): A heat treating process which is used to reduce residual stresses in steel

that have resulted from welding, carburizing or nitriding.

T

Tempering pulse: A post-weld heat treatment or post-annealing to improve the weld fracture mode

and the weld current range.

TS (Tensile Strength): Also called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). In a tensile test, the tensile

strength is the maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional area.

TRIP (Transformation-Induced Plasticity steel): A steel with a microstructure of retained austenite

embedded in a primary matrix of ferrite. In addition, hard phases of martensite and bainite are present

in varying amounts. The retained austenite progressively transforms to martensite with increasing

strain.

True strain: The unit elongation given by the change in length divided by the instantaneous gage

length.

True stress: The unit force obtained from the applied load divided by the instantaneous cross-

sectional area.

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TWIP (Twinning-Induced Plasticity steel): A high manganese steel that is austenitic at all

temperatures – especially room temperature. The twinning mode of deformation creates a very high

n-value, a tensile strength in excess of 900 MPa, and a total elongation in excess of 40%.

Twist: Twist in a channel defined as two cross-sections rotating differently along their axis.

U

UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength): See Tensile Strength.

UFG (Ultra fine grain steel): Hot-rolled, higher strength steel designed to avoid low values of

blanked edge stretchability by replacing islands of martensite with an ultra-fine grain size. An array of

very fine particles can provide additional strength without reduction of edge stretchability.

ULSAB-AVC (UltraLight Steel Auto Body – Advanced Vehicle Concepts): Information is available

at www.worldautosteel.org.

ULSAC (UltraLight Steel Auto Closures): Information is available at www.worldautosteel.org.

W

Work hardening exponent: The exponent in the relationship  = KЄn where  is the true stress, K is

a constant, and Є is the true strain. See n-value.

Wrinkling: A wavy condition on metal parts due to buckling under compressive stresses.

Y

YS (Yield Strength): The stress at which steel exhibits a specified deviation (usually 0.2% offset)

from the proportionality of stress to strain and signals the onset of plastic deformation.

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Application Guidelines

SECTION 6 – REFERENCES

A

A-1. Body Systems Analysis Team, “Automotive Sheet Steel Stamping Process Variation,”

Auto\/Steel Partnership (Summer 1999) www.a-sp.org.

A-2. High Strength Steel (HSS) Stamping Design Manual, Auto\/Steel Partnership (2000).

A-3. High Strength Steel (HSS) Stamping Design Manual, Auto\/Steel Partnership (1997).

A-4. Courtesy of M. Munier, Arcelor.

A-5. American Iron and Steel Institute, “Advanced High-Strength Steel Reparability Studies: Phase I

Final Report and Phase II Final Report,” www.autosteel.org.

A-6. Auto\/Steel Partnership, “Advanced High Strength Steel Guidelines,” www.a-sp.org (November 1,

2007).

A-7. American Iron and Steel Institute, Great Designs in Steel, Seminar Presentation.

A-8. ULSAB-AVC Consortium. (2001, Jan). ULSAB-AVC (Advanced Vehicle Concepts) Overview

Report. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.autosteel.org\/Programs\/ULSAB-AVC.aspx.

A-9. Courtesy of AIDA America.

A-10. Dr. T. Altan, Professor at Ohio State University.

A-11. AWS, “Welding Handbook – Welding Processes, Part 2,” American Welding Society (2007).

A-12. Courtesy of Auto\/Steel Partnership and AET Integration.

A-13. AWS D8.1, “Specification for Automotive Weld Quality – Resistance Spot Welding of Steels,”

American Welding Society (2013).

A-14. AWS C1.1, “Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding,” American Welding Society

(2012).

A-15. ASM International, “Welding, Brazing and Soldering,” The Materials Information Society

(2008).

A-16. Courtesy of ArcelorMittal.

A-17. Auto\\Steel Partnership Advanced High-Strength Steel Applications Design and Stamping

Process Guidelines – Section 2 – Lessons learned from Advanced High Strength Steel Case Studies

(2010)

A-18. AWS – AWS D8.6:2005, Table 2, Page 4.

A-19. L. W. Austin and J. L. Lindsay, “Continuous Steel Strip Electroplating,” slide course, American

Electroplaters and Surface Finishers Society, 1989

A-20. Courtesy of Auto\/Steel Partnership

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Application Guidelines

B

B-1. H. Beenken, “Joining of AHSS versus Mild Steel,” Processing State-of-the-Art Multi-phase Steel;

European Automotive Supplier Conference, Berlin (September 23, 2004).

B-2. H. Beenken et al, “Verarbeitung Oberflächenveredelter Stahlfeinbleche mit Verschiedenen

Fügetechniken,“ Große Schweißtechnische Tagung 2000, Nürnberg, (September 27, 2000). DVS-

Berichte Bd. 209, Schweißen und Schneiden (2000).

B-3. H. Beenken, “Hochfeste Stahlwerkstoffe und ihre Weiterverarbeitung im Rohbau,“

Fügetechnologien im Automobilleichtbau, AUTOMOBIL Produktion, Stuttgart, (March 20, 2002).

B-4. Courtesy of Baosteel and Posco Steel.

C

C-1. B. Carlsson et al, “Formability of High Strength Dual Phase Steels,” Paper F2004F454, SSAB

Tunnplåt AB, Borlänge, Sweden (2004).

C-2. B. Carlsson, “Choice of Tool Materials for Punching and Forming of Extra- and Ultra High

Strength Steel Sheet,” 3rd International Conference and Exhibition on Design and Production of Dies

and Molds and 7th International Symposium on Advances in Abrasive Technology, Bursa, Turkey

(June 17-19, 2004).

C-3. V. Cuddy et al, “Manufacturing Guidelines When Using Ultra High Strength Steels in Automotive

Applications,” EU Report (ECSC) R585 (January 2004).

C-4. D. Corjette et al, “Ultra High Strength FeMn TWIP Steels for Automotive Safety Parts,” SAE

Paper 2005-01-1327 (2005).

C-5. Corus Automotive. (2009, Dec) Pocket book of steel: Your reference guide to steel in the

automotive industry. Retrieved from

http:\/\/www.tatasteelautomotive.com\/file_source\/StaticFiles\/Microsites\/Automotive\/Publications\/Book%

20of%20steel\/Book%20of%20Steel%203rd%20Ed_lowres.pdf.

C-6. Courtesy of China Steel.

D

D-1. Courtesy of A. Lee, Dofasco Inc.

D-2. Abraham, A. Ducker Worldwide. (2011, May). Future Growth of AHSS

[PowerPoint presentation at Great Designs in Steel Seminar - 2011].

E

E-1. Edison Welding Institute and the Ohio State University, “Effect of Material and GMAW Process

Conditions on AHSS Welds,” Sheet Metal Welding Conference XII.

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F

F-1. T. Flehmig et al, “A New Method of Manufacturing Hollow Sections for Hydroformed Body

Components,” International Body Engineering Conference, Detroit, USA (2000).

F-2. T. Flehmig et al, “Thin Walled Steel Tube Pre-bending for Hydroformed Component – Bending

Boundaries and Presentation of a New Mandrel Design,” SAE Paper 2001-01-0642, Detroit, USA

(2001).

F-3. Courtesy of FCA North America LLC.

F-4. Courtesy of Fuchs Lubricants.

G

G-1. J. Gerlach et al, “Material Aspects of Tube-hydroforming,” SAE Paper 1999-01-3204, Detroit,

USA (1999).

G-2. S. Göklü, “Innovative Fügetechnologien beim Einsatz Neuartiger Stahlwerkstoffe für den

Schienenfahrzeugbau,“ Fügen und Konstruieren im Schienenfahrzeugbau,

SLV Halle, (May 21, 1997).

G-3. S. Göklü et al, “The Influence of Corrosion on the Fatigue Strength of Joined Components from

Coated Steel Plate,” Materials and Corrosion 50, p.1 (1999).

G-4. Geyer, R. (2008, Sept 15). “Parametric Assessment of Climate Change Impacts of Automotive

Material Substitution.” Environmental Science & Technology, 42 (18), 6973-6979.

G-5. Green Car Congress (September 5, 2012). MQB-based 7th Generation VW Golf up to 100 kg

Lighter and 23% More Fuel Efficient Than Predecessor.

G-6. Courtesy of General Motors Corporation.

H

H-1. R. Hilsen et al, “Stamping Potential of Hot-Rolled, Columbium-Bearing High-Strength Steels,”

Proceedings of Microalloying 75 (1977).

H-2. B. Högman et al, “Blanking in Docol Ultra High Strength Steels,” Verschleißschutztechnik,

Schopfheim, Germany (2004) and G. Hartmann “Blanking and Shearing of AHS Steels – Quality

Aspects of Sheared Edges and Prediction of Cutting Forces,” ACI Conference; Processing State-of-

the Art Multiphase Steels, Berlin, Germany (2004).

H-3. G. Hartmann, “Das Spektrum Moderner Stahlfeinbleche-Festigkeiten und Auswirkungen auf die

Umformung” Verschleißschutztechnik, Schopfheim, Germany (2004).

H-4. Published 03\/28\/2017 Copyright © 2017 SAE International doi:10.4271\/2017-01-0306

saeeng.saejournals.org Hance, B., \"Practical Application of the Hole Expansion Test,\" SAE Int. J.

Engines 10(2):2017, doi:10.4271\/2017-01-0306

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Application Guidelines

I

I-1. R. Mohan Iyengar et al, “Implications of Hot-Stamped Boron Steel Components in Automotive

Structures,” SAE Paper 2008-01-0857 (2008).

I-2. Global Comparison of Passenger Car and Light Commercial Vehicle Fuel Economy\/GHG

Emissions Standards; February 2014 Update, International Council for Clean Transportation (ICCT).

www.theicct.org

I-3. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. http:\/\/www.iihs.org\/ [Web resources].

I-4. Image Industries. http:\/\/www.imageindustries.com\/welding-processes\/gas-arc-welding-process\/

[Web Resources].

I-5. Courtesy of Irmco (Jeff Jeffery).

J

J-1. Courtesy of JFE Steel Corporation

J-2. C. Ji, M. Kimchi, Y. Kim and Y. Park, \"The application of pulsed current in resistance spot

welding of zn-coated hot-stamped boron steels,\" in Advances in Resistance Welding, Miami, FL,

2016.

K

K-1. A. Konieczny, “Advanced High Strength Steels – Formability,” 2003 Great Designs in Steel,

American Iron and Steel Institute (February 19, 2003), www.autosteel.org.

K-2. S. Keeler, “Increased Use of Higher Strength Steels,” PMA Metalforming magazine (July 2002).

K-3. A. Konieczny, “On the Formability of Automotive TRIP Steels”, SAE Technical Paper No. 2003-

01-0521 (2003).

K-4. T. Katayama et al, “Effects of Material Properties on Shape-Fixability and Shape Control

Techniques in Hat-shaped Forming,” Proceedings of the 22nd IDDRG Congress, p.97 (2002).

K-5. Y. Kuriyama, “The Latest Trends in Both Development of High Tensile Strength Steels and

Press Forming Technologies for Automotive Parts,” NMS (Nishiyama Memorial Seminar), ISIJ,

175\/176, p.1 (2001).

K-6. A. Konieczny and T. Henderson, “On Formability Limitations in Stamping Involving Sheared

Edge Stretching,” SAE Paper 2007-01-0340 (2007).

K-7. M. Kupper, K. Eckhardt, GM Opel, from proceedings of the 2014 Aachen Body Engineering

Days.

K-8. Courtesy of Kia Motors.

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Application Guidelines

L

L-1. S-D. Liu, “ASP HSS Load Beam Springback Measurement Data Analysis,” Generalety Project

Report #001023 (May 27, 2004).

L-2. S. Lalam, B. Yan, “Weldability of AHSS,” Society of Automotive Engineers, International

Congress, Detroit (2004).

L-3. R. Laurenz, “Bauteilangepasste Fügetechnologien,“ Fügetechnologien im Automobilbau, Ulm

(February 11, 2004).

L-4. R. Laurenz, “Spot Weldability of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS),” Conference on

Advanced Joining, IUC, Olofstrøm (February 2, 2004).

L-5. F. Lu and M. Forrester, Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress on Applications of Lasers

and Electro Optics (2002).

L-6. T. M. Link, “Tensile Shear Spot Weld Fatigue of Advanced High Strength Steels,” Paper

presented at the 45th MWSP Conference, Page 345, Vol. XLI (2003).

L-7. W. Li and E, Feng, “Energy Consumption in AC and MFDC Resistance Spot Welding“ paper

presented at the XI Sheet Metal Welding Conference, American Welding Society, Detroit Chapter

(May 11-14, 2004).

M

M-1. Courtesy of S. Lalam, Mittal Steel.

M-2. M. Merklein and J. Lechler, “Determination of Material and Process Characteristics for Hot

Stamping Processes of Quenchable Ultra High Strength Steels with Respect to a FE-based Process

Design.” SAE Paper 2008-01-0853 (2008).

M-3. K. Miysohi, “Current Trends in Free Motion Presses,” Nagoya, Japan.

M-4. M. McCosby, “Hot Dipped Coating Technology – Galvannealing and GA Products” (2006) – U.

S. Steel Research and Technology Center.

M-5. Courtesy of P. Mooney archives

M-6. H. Mohrbacher, “Advanced metallurgical concepts for DP steels with improved formability and

damage resistance” – NiobelCon bvba

M-7. P. Mooney, “Design and Application Related Considerations for AHSS” – 3S – Superior

Stamping Solutions, LLC training seminar

M-8. P. Mooney, “Stamping Technology Seminar” – 3S – Superior Stamping Solutions, LLC training

seminar

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Application Guidelines

N

N-1. Courtesy of K. Yamazaki, Nippon Steel Corporation.

N-2. M. F. Shi, Internal National Steel Corporation report.

N-3. J. Noel, HSS Stamping Task Force, Auto\/Steel Partnership.

N-4. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

http:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/Laws+&+Regulations\/Vehicles?rulePage=0 [Web resources].

N-5. Courtesy of Nippon Steel

N-6. Courtesy of the National Plasma Nitriding Center.

O

O-1. Courtesy of the Ohio State University

O-2. Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Ford Motor Company

P

P-1. C. Potter, American Iron and Steel Institute, Southfield, MI

P-2. Courtesy of Posco, South Korea

P-3. P.E. International, GaBi Professional Database 2013 - Aluminium ingot mix IAI (2010),

http:\/\/gabi-documentation-2013.gabi-software.com\/xml-data\/processes\/eee56f32-df9d-47ac-ad4d-

4e733eb18921.xml

P-4. Patterson, J., Alexander, M., Gurr, A. (2011, May 20). “Preparing for a Low Carbon Vehicle

Society”; Report Number RD\/11.124801.4, Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership Study.

P-5. Parsons, W. (May, 2012). “Body Structure Light Weighting at Cadillac”, Great Designs in Steel

conference presentation

P-6. D. Phillips, Manuscript “Welding Engineering: An Introduction,” Wiley

(to be published 2014)

P-7. D. Pieronek (Forschungsgesellschaft Kraftfahrwesen), A. Marx (Dortmunder

OberflächenCentrum) and R. Röttger (ThyssenKrupp), “Numerical Failure Prediction of Resistance

Spot Welded Steel Joints,” NAFEMS Seminar (2010).

P-8. Andrea Peer, Ying Lu, Tim Abke, Menachem Kimchi, and Wei Zhang \"Deformation Behaviors of

Subcritical Heat-affected Zone of Ultra-high Strength Steel Resistance Spot Welds.\" in 9th

International Seminar & Conference on Advances in Resistance Spot Welding. Miami, (3 2016).

Paper No. 12.

P-9: The Phoenix Group (2016), “The Science of Sheet Metal Formability”.

Version 6.0, April 2017 6-6

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Application Guidelines

R

R-1. Courtesy of P. Ritakallio, Rautaruukki Oyj.

R-2. D. J. Radakovic and M. Tumuluru, “Predicting Resistance Spot Weld Fatigue Failure Modes in

Shear Tension Tests of Advanced High Strength Automotive Steels,” Welding Journal, Vol. 87 (April

2008).

S

S-1. M. Shi et al, “Formability Performance Comparison between Dual Phase and HSLA Steels,”

Proceedings of 43rd Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, Iron & Steel Society, 39, p.165

(2001).

S-2. M. Shi, “Springback and Springback Variation Design Guidelines and Literature Review,”

National Steel Corporation Internal Report (1994).

S-3. S. Sadagopan and D. Urban, “Formability Characterization of a New Generation of High

Strength Steels,” American Iron and Steel Institute (March 2003).

S-4. Singh et al, “Selecting the Optimum Joining Technology,” p.323 and “Increasing the Relevance

of Fatigue Test Results,” MP Materialprüfung, 45, 7-8, p.330 (2003).

S-5. Courtesy of D. Eriksson, SSAB Tunnplåt AB.

S-6. Steel Market Development Institute Automotive Market Program. www.autosteel.org. [Web

resources].

S-7. Shaw, J. R. and Zuidema, B. K. (2001). “New High Strength Steels Help Automakers Reach

Future Goals for Safety, Affordability, Fuel Efficiency and Environmental Responsibility” SAE Paper

2001-01-3041.

S-8. Tom Stoughton, General Motors Research, GDIS 2013 and other papers.

S-9. Hua-Chu Shih, Constantin Chirac, and Ming Shi, “The Effects of AHSS Shear Edge Conditions

on Edge Fracture,” Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Manufacturing Science and

Engineering, MSEC2010-34062

S-10. M. Shih, “Laser Cutting to Improve AHSS Edge Stretchability,” SAE Paper 2014-01-0994

S-11. M. Shih, M. Shi, D. Zeng, C. Xia, Development of Shear Fracture Criterion for Dual Phase

Steel Stamping – 2009 SAE International 2009-01-1172

S-12. M. Shih, M. Shi, C. Xia, D. Zeng, “Experimental Study on Shear Fracture of Advanced High

Strength Steels Part II” – 2009 International Conference on Manufacturing Science and Engineering

S-13. M. Shih, “Die Wear and Galling in Stamping DP 980 Steels” – Great Designs in Steel 2015

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T

T-1. M. Takahashi et al, “High Strength Hot-Rolled Steel Sheets for Automobiles,” Nippon Steel

Technical Report No. 88 (July 2003).

T-2. M. Takahashi, “Development of High Strength Steels for Automobiles,” Nippon Steel Technical

Report No. 88 (July 2003).

T-3. Courtesy of ThyssenKrupp Stahl.

T-4. Courtesy of TOX PRESSOTECHNIK GmbH & Co. KG, Weingarten.

T-5. M. Tumuluru, “Resistance Spot Welding of Coated High-Strength Dual-Phase Steels, “ Welding

Journal (August 2006).

T-6. M. Tumuluru, “A Comparative Examination of the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of Two

Advanced High Strength Steels,” SAE Paper 2006-01-1214 (2006).

T-7. M. Tumuluru, “The Effect of Coatings on the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of 780 MPa Dual

Phase Steel “, Welding Journal, Vol. 86 (June 2007).

T-8. M. Tumuluru and S. Gnade, “Clinch Joining of Advanced High Strength Steels,” Paper

presented at the MS&T Conference, Detroit, MI (September 2007).

T-9. Courtesy of TRUMPF

T-10. Courtesy of TATA Steel

T-11. Courtesy of ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe

T-12. Courtesy of The Welding Institute, United Kingdom, http:\/\/www.twi-global.com\/technical-

knowledge\/faqs\/process-faqs\/faq-how-do-clinching-and-self-piercing-riveting-compare-with-spot-

welding-for-sheet-materials\/ [Website Reference]

U

U-1. M. Ueda and K. Ueno, \"A Study of Springback in the Stretch Bending of Channels,\" Journal of

Mechanical Working Technology, 5, p.163 (1981).

U-2. Courtesy of United States Council for Automotive Research LLC

U-3. Courtesy of US Steel Corporation (M. Tumuluru and D. J. Radakovic)

V

V-1. Courtesy of C. Walch, voestalpine Stahl GmbH.

V-2. Courtesy of M. Peruzzi, voestalpine Stahl GmbH.

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Advanced High-Strength Steels

Application Guidelines

W

W-1. International Iron and Steel Institute, UltraLight Steel Auto Body - Advanced Vehicle Concepts

(ULSAB–AVC) Overview Report (2002), www.worldautosteel.org.

W-2. www.worldautosteel.org.

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Paper 2006-01-0349 (2006).

W-4. M. Walp et al, “Shear Fracture in Advanced High Strength Steels,” SAE Paper 2006-01-1433

(2006).

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W-7. WorldAutoSteel. (2011) FutureSteelVehicle – Final engineering report. Retrieved from

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W-8. WorldAutoSteel (2002) ULSAB-AVC (Advanced Vehicle Concepts) Engineering Report.

Retrieved from http:\/\/www.worldautosteel.org\/projects\/ulsab-avc-2\/.

W-9. WorldAutoSteel. (2001) ULSAC Engineering Report. Retrieved from

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W-10. G. Walters, Hot Dipped Coating Technology – Coating Bath Hardware (2006) – U. S. Steel

Research and Technology

W-11. Photo courtesy of Worthington Specialty Processing.

W-12. Photo courtesy of WikiBooks,

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Y

Y-1. B. Yan, “High Strain Rate Behavior of Advanced High-Strength Steels for Automotive

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edited by S-D Liu (1987).

Y-3. B. Yan (Mittal Steel, USA), Y. Kuriyama and A. Uenishi (Nippon Steel Corporation), D. Cornette

(Arcelor), M. Borsutzki (ThyssenKrupp Stahl), C. Wong, SAE Paper 2006-01-0120 - Recommended

Practice for Dynamic Testing for Sheet Steels - Development and Round Robin Tests

Z

Z-1. W. Zhang (SWANTEC Software and Engineering ApS), A. Chergue (ThyssenKrupp Steel

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