INDUSTRIALTILEANDPAVERAPPLICATIONS TECHNICALDESIGNMANUAL

LATICRETE Technical Services Department

Globally Proven Construction Solutions

Cover Photo: Vintage copper kettle inbrewery-Belgium Photo Courtesyof Tatiana Popova

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Industrial Tile and Pavers Applications Technical Manual ⊚ 2020 LATICRETE Internatfional, Inc.

SECTION1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preface
1.2 Industrial Tile andPaverApplications Considerations
1.3 History of CeramicTile and ThinBedMortarAdhesive Systems
1.4 Summary of Manual Content

SECTION2TYPESOFFLOORCONSTRUCTS 12

2.1 Structural Considerations Types of Structural Movement
2.2Structural Considerations Loads Requirementsof Building Design Deflecion
2.3Substrate Condition and Preparation Evaluationof SubstrateCondiion Adhesive Compatity Site Visit and Conference Job Site Condions Moisture Content of Concrete Concrete Curing-Age of Concrete Cracking Potenial Bond Breaking Materidls Substrate PreprationEqupment andrcedres
Contamination Removal
2.4 Uncommon Substrates Asphaltic Waterprooing Mmbrans Stee and Metal Exterior Glue Plywood
2.5Concrete Slab on Grade Placement of Concrete Slab Importance of Vapor Retarders Placement of Vapor Retarders Drivers of Mosture Vapor Testing forMoistureContent inConcrete Commonly Used Moisture Test Procedures Eflorescence
2.6Suspended Concrete Slabs Cast-ln-Place Concrete Slabs Mild Reinforcement Concrete Slabs Post-Tensioned Concrete Slabs PreTensioned (Pre-Cast) Concrete Slabs Steel Frame (Deck) Concrete Slabs TileInstallation Over Suspended Concrete Slabs
2.7 Steel Coolers and Freezers Temperatures ConcreteorMortarBedSubstrates Stee or Metal Substrates
2.8 References

SECTION3TYPESOFWALLCONSTRUCTION 35

3.1 Structural Considerations
3.2 Wall ypes Concrete allTypes
3.3 Concrete Curing
3.4 Concrete Masonry Units (CMU)
3.5 Framed Wall Substrates Cementious Backer Units (CBU) Coated GlassMatWaterResistantGypsumBackerBoard Fiber Cement Underlayment Fiber Reinforced WaterResistantGypsumBackerBoard Cementious Coated Foam Board
3.6Substrate Condiion and Preparation Evaluation of Substrate Condition Adhesive Compatibity Site Visit and Conference Substrate Preparation Cracks Plumb and Level Surface and Ambient Temperature
3.7 References

SECTION4COMPARISONOFALTERNATEINDUSTRIALFLOORINGSYSTEMS

4.1Seamless Epoxy Flooring Systems General InformationonIndustrial EpoxyCotings Life Expectancy Epoxy Coating Facts
4.2 Polished Concrete Foors Polshed Concrete Limitations
4.3 References

SECTION5TYPESOFTILESFORINDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS

5.1Selectionof Industial ApplicationTl Tpes
SelectionCriteria forFinishMateridl
5.2 Quarry Tile/Klinker Tle
5.3. Dairy Brick and Packing House Tiles
5.4Porcelain Tle and Pavers
5.5 Abrasive Tile and Treatments
5.6Expansion and Contractionof Industrial Floor Tile Finishes
5.7 References

SECTION6TYPESOFWATERPROOFINGMEMBRANES

6.1 Overview
6.2 Sheet Membranes
6.3Peel and Stick Membranes
6.4Trowelable Membranes Latex Cement-Based Membranes Epoxy-Based Membranes Urethane Based Membranes

6.5Liquid Applied Membranes

SECTION7TYPESOFMORTARS/ADHESIVES/GROUTS 58

7.1Adhesive andMortarPerformance and Selction Crteria CriteriaforSelectionofAdhesivesandMortars
7.2 Types of Adhesives and Mortars Redispersible Polymer-Fortified Cement Morar Types of Redispersible (Polymeric) Powders

Liquid Latex-FortifiedCementMortar Epoxy Resin Adhesives Furan (Furnane) Adhesives Bonding Agents (Slury Bond Coats) 7.3 Methods of Installation ApplicationMethods for Industrial Applications 7.4Types of Grout and Joint Fillers Materials forJoint Groing andSeling 7.5 Typical Renders and Detailsfor Industridl Applications 7.6 References

SECTION8METHODSOFINSTALLATION 2

8.1TraditionalInstalltion Equipment and Procedures Weatherand Substrate Preparation
8.2Finish Material Preparation Types of Finish Materials
8.3Adhesive Mixing Equipment andProcedures Types of Adhesives and Equipment
8.4FinishMaterial Installtion Equipment and Procedures Installationof CeramicTile andPaverFinishes
8.5 InstalationProcedure forFinishes Using Thin Bed Adhesives Functions of a Notched Trowel Thin Bed Installtion Procedure
8.6 Grout andSealntMaterials Selection,Methods and Equipment Purpose of Grout or Sealant Joints Grou InstaltionProcedure
8.7Post Instalion Cleaning
8.8Mechanical Means and Methods
8.9Vibrated Floor System
8.10 References

SECTION9MAINTENANCEANDPROTECTION. 33

9.1 QualityAssurance
9.2Preventative and Corrective Maintenance
9.3 Typical Industrial Application Cleaning Regimens
9.4 LATICRETE? SpectraLOCK 2000 IG Regrouing Procedure
9.5 ProtectionndSelingWaterRepelnt Sealersand Cotigs
9.6 Alternative to Using Sealers

SECTION10INDUSTRYSTANDARDS,BUILDINGREGULATIONSANDSPECIFICATIONS 88

10.1 Background
10.2 Building Codes and Regulations
10.3 Industry Standards
10.4 Sample Specifictions
10.5 Sample Industrial Application Details

FLOORS:

ES-F111Concrete—Slab-On-Grade or Suspended—Unbonded Thick Bed ESF114 Concrete－ Unbonded Thick Bed with Epoxy Grout ES-F115 Concrete－Thin Bed with Epoxy Grout ESF115BConcrete －Thin Bed wih EpoxyGrout and Waterproofing Membrane ES-F133 Concrete Slab—Chemical Resistant Thin Bed ESF134 Concrete Slab－Chemical ResistantThick Bed—Industial Grout ES-F312 Concrete Slab－Chemical Resistant ThinBed With Waterproofing Membrane

INTERIOR WALLS:

ES-W201(1)Concrete－ThickBed With Metal Lath
ES-W202(I) Smooth Concrete — Thin Bed
ES-W221(lI)Concrete/Masonry Units-Leveling Bed With Metal Lath
ES-W241(I）Steel Framing －Thick Bed With Metal Lath
ES-W244(I)Steel Framing —Cement Backer Bord
ES-W302 Glazed Blockwith Epoxy Grout
ES-W215 Concrete －Spot Bonding
ES-W260 Cement Backer Board－ Spot Bonding

MISCELLANEOUS:

ES-WP300 Typical Pipe Penetration ES-WP301 Typical Drain Detil ES-WP302 Drain Detail-Exploded View

EXPANSIONJOINTDETAILS:

EJ171-07Movement Joint DesignEsentils(Insert llappropriateE Details)

E-01 Typical Expansion Joint— Unbonded Thick Bed
E-02 Typical Expansion Joint－Bonded Thick Bed
E-03Typical Isolation/Expansion Joint— Thin Bed
EJ-04 TYypical Control Joint— Thin Bed
EJ-05 Typical Perimeter Joint— Thin Bed
EI-06Typical Generic Movement Joint
E-07 Typical Expansion Joint— Thin Bed
E-08ExpansionJointWithWaterproofing MembraneBelowThick Bed
E-09Control JointWith Ant-Fracture Membrane
EJ-10ExpansionJointWithWaterproofing Membrane Above ThickBed
EJ-11 Expansion Joint WithWaterprofing Membrane—Thin Bed
EJ-14 Cold Joint
E-15Movement Joint With Waterproofing Membrane—Unbonded Thick Bed

10.6LATICRETE Architectural Guidebook
10.7 Industry References

SECTION11APPENDIX

11.1Industrial ApplicationsFrequenty Asked Questions
11.2 Glossary
11.3Resource Guide—Trade Organizations and Technical Resources

Special thanks toMr Richard Goldberg, Architect AIA, CSIforhis contributions to this technical design manual. Authored by the LATICRETE International,Inc.Technical ServicesStaff

Section 1: Introduction

1.1 Preface

LATICRETEIntenational,amanufacturerfceramictil,stonend brick masonryinstalltionsystems,haslong recognized theneed for a technical manual to provide guidelines and recommendations for teesig,ittfstilcq and paver tile floor and wallinstallations. Technical advances in materials,manufacturing,and construction methods have expanded therole of thistype of application ever since the development of adhesive mortars in the 1950's. Inkeeping with their position as an industryleader, LATCRETE International is publishing this edition of the Industrial Tile and Paver Applications Technical DesignManudl. This manual will make state-of-the-art information and technology available to architects,engineers,construction professonals,and manufacturers in the ceramic tile,paver and dairy brick industries.It is also the goal of this publication to encourage newideas, research, and building regulations for the purpose of improving the future of this constructiontechnology and the ceramic tile,paver nd dairy brick industries.

1.2 Industrial Tile and Paver Applications Considerations

In the past,bulky conventional thick bed methods were employed forthe installtionof industrialceramictil,pavertileanddairybrick applications.Adhesive technology has opened up an entirely new world of esthetic and technical posbies for tiling inindustril applications. ndustrial applications canpresent many challenges for the designer and the installer.

Manyindustrial installationsplacetremendousstressonthe tileor paver applicationand create a challenging environment not only for the finish tile orpaver,but also for the installtion systemmaterils

This designmanualhasbeen created withthe intent toassist thedesignprofessionalinassessing and specifying the coret installtion system for the specific aplication.

The building ownerbenefitsfrom the more efficient and environmentallysensitive use of materials,resulting from reducedweight,lwercostfmaterilndmreeff use of natural resources.

The building construction process is made more efficient by utilizing modern technology and installation methods, which allreduce constructiontme on-site laborcosts, and provide better quality assurance.

However,alltheseadvantages ofusing the systems utinedin this manul can only be realized with anew approch to the design and construction of theareas that willreceive thefinishmaterials Designand constructiontechniquesmustbeadaptedtothespecifi requirements and behavior of construction adhesive technology, as wellas theunique atributesof cermictilavernd dairy brick finishes.

1.3 History of Ceramic Tile and Thin Bed Adhesive Systems

Ceramic tilehasbeen used forcenturies asadecorative and functional building material for buildings. Ceramictile development can betracedto4000 B.C. in Egy.

In the150's,HenyMRothberg,nengineerwholatrfod LATICRETE International, ivented a product and newmethdly that wouldmake direct adhesive atachment of ceramictile,stone, and thinbrickapplications physically and economically fesible. This development revolutionized both the ceramic tile and stone industries.

1.4 Summary of Manual Content

Ceramic til, porcelain il,pavers,quarry il and dairy brick mt be designed and constructed withcareful consideration of the complex interactions that occur between the other components of an industrial tile assembly.This manual explores many of the issues thatadesignprofessionalwillencounterasspecificationsanddetails are prepared for these demanding, high performance applications

Section 2 -Types of Floor Constructs

The selectionand preparation ofasubstrate is one of the most critical steps in the design and construction of an industrial tile assembly. Suitability and compatibility of the most common substrates is covered inthis manual, as wellas comprehensive recommendations for preparation such as evaluation of level and plumb tolerances,surface defects,and theeffect of climaticnd site conditions nsubstrates.Thissectionisαprimer on the theory and terminology of floor construction.Types of floorstructures and constructionarepresented,togetherwithcommentaryon applicabilty the installtionof ceramictil,paveranddairybrick finishes for industrial alications.

Section 3-Types of Wall Constructs

A primer onthe theory and terminology of wallsand wall construction.Types of wallstructures and constructionare presented, togetherwith commentary on applicability to the installation of ceramic tile,paveranddairybrick finishes forindustrialapplications.

Section 4 - Comparison of Alternate Industrial Flooring Systems

A comparison of other popular industrial flooring systems. Advantages anddisadvantages of eachtype are discussed

Section 5 - Types of Tile for Industrial Applications Investigationand selection of the proper type of finish material is an important designdecision.Detailed criteria fortheassessment and selectionfcmiclelnqrry dairy brick are presented.

Section 6 - Types of Waterproofing Membranes

This section discusses the various types of waterproofing membranes that are available on the market, and their suitabity forse in conjunction with tile applications. Criteria on selection and use are also discussed.

Section 7 - Types of Mortars/Adhesives and Grouts This section covers the entire range of assessing and determining the selection criteria for morars, adhesives and grouts aswell as specific performance functions of installation materials for industrial applications.

Section 8 - Methods of Installation

Thissectioncoversthe entirerange of installationand construction issues,from the various types of installtion procedures to the equipment required for the installation of industril ile applications

Section 9 - Maintenance and Protection

Cleaning,protection,nd preventativemantenance procedes are presented to ensure long term performance of a tiled industril application.

Section 10 - Industry Standards, Building Regulations and Specifications

Detailed informtiononapplicable industy standards andbuilding codes for ceramic tile adhesives is provided.

Architectural detailsshowtypicalindustrialtileapplicationassembly configurations and recommended design forsuch.Examples of these concepts are graphically depicted withvarioussubstrate/material combinations. Details include designrecommendations for interface detailssuchaspenetrationsdraintieinsmvement joint sealns flashings, and waterproofing membranes.

Section 2: Types of Floor Constructs

2.1 Structural Considerations

TYPESOFSTRUCTURALMOVEMENT

It is essential thatall industrilfloorplicationsbe designed to accommodate all types of structural movement.Structural movement can transmit through the adhesive connection and tile orflooring system,accumulate,and thenexerstress onthefor, resulting in cracking,buckling, orloss of bond beween the tile nd adhesive or flooring system.

The different types of structural movement are individully quantifiable through mathematical calculations which, for industrial floors, wil mainlybe restricted tconcrete substrates.Foruntel the structural theory used in most building codes dictates the use of “worst case”conditions;the calculated movements are of the highest possiblemagnitudeinordertoprovideasafetyfactorwhen exposed to most actual conditions.

Types of Structural Movement Include:

- Thermal Movement
-Creep
- Diffentiol Sttement - Seismic

Thermal Movement

Thermal movement is a term that refers to the expansion or contraction of a substance in response to changes in temperature. All materialsreactto changes intemperature.Whileall materials move inresponse to temperature,all materials can exhibit differences inboththe speed of thereactionand the degreeof movement when subjected to similar temperature changes. When two dissimilar materialsreact dramatically different in the same environment, thntheabityofaflhesiveomaintainstrg bond through such challenges can be tested. In situations where dissimilar materials meet and fooring spans both materials, cracking or complete lossof bondmaybe the likelyconsequence.Allowing for movement withinthe substrate layer and the flooring installtion is critical to assure long-term, problem-free installtions.

There are two factors to consider in analzing thermal movement:

1. The rates of expansion of diferent materials (i.e.linear coefficient of thermal expansion) 2. The anticipated temperature range exposure

Some building materials respond rapidly when exposed to temperature changes while concrete can respond more slowly. Some tile products and flooring systemshave ahigher tensile strength than concrete and may also respond to temperature changes ata different rateStresses applied to the finishes and concretes result of the rapid or continuous movement of dissimilar materials, can be that the concrete cracks horizontally just below thebond line and the flooring system can fail at that point.

Thermal movement canbe rapid and reoccurring.Rapid changes can be explained whennormal conditions are introduced to extremely hightemperatures (i.e.steam or ovens) or extreme cold (e.g. dry ice orliquid nitrogen). mperature changes donot have tobe

Figure 2.1— Types of Structural Movement.

dramatic formovement to occur.Slowermore repetitive temperature changes canbe equally destructive.Inthese situations, there can be continuous stress at the bond ine caused by suchthings as daily recuring tmperaure changes.Thesetemperaturechanges,in conjunction with time,can fatigue the weaker material at the bond line.Over time the weakermaterial (i.e.concrete),may cause the same failure asif it were exposed torapid temperature changes (e.g. steam cleaning).The conditions that might cause loss of bond are not always obvious.

Some conditions to be aware of are:

- Direct Application of Steam -AreasUnder Hot Ovens,Fryers or Commercial Dishwashers -Direct Application of Water at orAbove 180°\mathsf{F} (82°\complement) - Rapid or Wide Changes in Ambient Temperature -Application of Cold Water to Hot Surfaces

Whenselectingmaterialsfortle flrranindustrialfloong system,beaware of the bove conditions.Additionally, cleaning and disinfecting protocols requiring hot water orsteam need tobe consideredeseciallyif thearebeing cleanedisormally cool, as in thecase of controlled manufacturing facilies (i.e. food plants).

Inaplicationfexrememeraturechangeimaybnea fouseacoarser aggregate than that used intypical concrete. Thinnersystemsreactwelltothermal stressesbecause they are offen too thin to exhibit destructive energy at the bond line. Tile installationmaterials are more at the mercyof the concrete properties than the otherway around.However,i the application receives heavyvehicular traffic orextremely heavy loads, make sure the tile installtion materials fit the service requirement of “Extra Heavy”when tested in accord with ASTM C627 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Ceramic Floor Tile Installation Systems Using the Robinson-Type Floor Tester).

The primary goal in analyzing thermal movementisto determine both the cumulative and individual differential movement that occurs within and between components of the floor assembly.

Because the thermal expansion of thetile is greater,thisfigure is used. The general rule for determining the width of a movement joint is 2—3 times the anticipated movement, or 3x21 mm (.82")=63\mathsf{mm}(2.5") The minimum recommended width of any individual joint is 10mm (3/8") ,therefore, a minimum of 6 joints across o 50\mathfrak{m} (154ft) floor, each 10 mm (3/8") .= width is required just to control thermal movement under the most extreme conditions.

For example,porcelain ile has anverage coefficient of linear expansion of between (4{-}8x10^{-6}mm/°C/mm) of length. Concrete has anaverage expansionrate of 9{-}10x10^{-6}\:mm/°(/ mm. The surface temperature of a porcelain ile inan application where steam is often used may reachas high as 140°\mathsf{F} (60°\complement) an ambient temperature ina moderately cold climate may be 14°\mathsf{F} (-10°0) ,orevencoolerinfreezerapplications 01-20°F (-29°0 The temperature variation within this tile instlltion can vary by as much as 160°F (71°0 The temperature range of the concrete,insulated from the temperature extremes by the tile and tile installationmortars,aswellaslengthof exposure,mayonly be 85°{\mathsf{F}} (30°\complement) For a building that is 50\mathfrak{m} wide, the differential movement can be calculated as follows:

Concrete .000010x500md{m}x1000md{mm}x30{x}15{x}100{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}15{x}100{x}100{x}1500{x}1500{x}1500{x}1500{x}1500{x}15000{x}15000{x} Tile .000006x500x100000x70°0=21mm ，

Creep

Deformationmvementinconrete structures,alsoknownascrep, occurs more slowly and can increase initial deflectionby 2—3 times. Creep isthetimedependent increase instrainofasolidbody under constantorcontrolled stresses.The placement of movement joints is critical in the successof the structure.Also the realistic prediction of both the magnitude and rate of creep strain is an imporant requirementof thedesignprocess.Whiletherearelaboratorytests that can determine the deformation properties of concrete,they

are offen skipped because of the time consuming nature and high cost of thetestncases where onlyaroughestmate of theree is required, an estimate can be made on the basis of only a few parameters such as relative humidity,age of concrete and member dimensions.Ideally acompromise has to be sought between an estimate of the prediction procedureand thelaboratory testing and mathematical and computer analyses.

Differential Settlement

Buildings structures are typically designed toallowforacertain tolerance of movement in the foundationknown asdifferential settlement.In most buildings the effect of normal differential settlement movement on the flooring system is considered insignificantbecause theallowable setflementhas occurredbefore the flooring systemhsbeen installed Differentiol seementf buildings foundation that occursbeyond the allowable tolerances is consideredastructuraldefect,whichcancausesignificantproblems to any flooring system, including tile.At that point one would need to addresstherootcause of the problem and come toasolution before the flooring system canbe properly repaired.Patching the visible problem areas in the flooring system willnot provide an adequate solution,and onecan expectrepetitionof the same issues in the floor.

Controlling Stresses With Movement (Expansion) Joints

One of the primarymensof controling thestresses inducedby building mvement, cocrete shrinkgend typiclconretering is with movement joints (also known as expansion, diatation, or controljintsll buldings and mterilsmve to vaig degrees,and thereforethe importance of movement joints cannot be understated. At some point in thelife cycle ofan interior floor there will beaconfluence of events or condions that willrely on movement joints to maintain the integrity of the floor system. Maintaining integrity of the floor canbe madeas simpleas preventing cracks in grout joints,to preventing complete adhesive bond failure of the ile.Proper design and constructionof movement joints requires consideration of the following criteria:

- Location
- Frequency
- Size (Width/Depth Ratio)
-Type and Detailing of Sealant and Accessory Materials

Figure2.4—Result of stresses induced by concrete shrinkage andlack of movement jointcontrolAstheconcrteshrinksexpansinjoinsarerequiredtrelivethstrss. When exansionjontsareittedrarentsuffient,teninf thetlcan creting bnfailrendcracking.

MOVEMENTJOINTS

Location of Movement Joints

The primary function of movement joints is to isolate the tile from otherfixed components of the building, and to subdivide the substrate and til into smaller areas thereby compensating for the cumulative effects of building movement (see section10 for specifications and details).While eachfloor isunique, there are some universal rules for location of movement jints that applyto anyflor installation.Many of the universal rules formovement joints can be found in the current edition of theTCNA Handbook for Ceramic TileInstallation, EJ-171.

Existing Structural Movement Joints

Movement joints may alreadybe incorporated in the nderlying structure to accommodate thermal, seismic or otherload types. These movement joints must extend throughto the surface of the tile orflooring systems,and equally important,the width of the underlying joint must be maintained to the surface of the tile or flooring finishes.

Changes of Plane

Movement jointsshouldbeplacedatallocations where thereisa change in plane, suchas outside and inside corners.

Location - Dissimilar Materials

Asstatedearlierinthissection,differentmaterialshave different rates and characteristics of movement.Movement joints must be located wherever thefloorfinishes andunderlying dhesive and leveling mortars meeta dissmilar substrate,suchas metal, penetrations, and a different type of floor finish.

Frequency of Movement Joints

Guidelines formovement joints in file and paver pplications are every 20^{\prime} to 25^{\prime} *6\mathsf{m}-7.5\mathsf{m}) in every direction for interior applications, and 8^{\prime} to 12' (2.4\:m-3.6\:m) in every direction for exterior applications andany interior tile work exposed to direct sunlight or moisture. The placement of a movement joint needs to be incorporated wheretile work abutsrestraining surfaces such as perimeterwall, dissimilr floors, curb, clms, pes, ceilings d where changes occur in backing materials,but not at drain strainers. All expansion,control,construction,cold,andseismicjointsinhe structure should contiue through the tile work, including such joints at vertical surfaces.Joints throughtile workdirectly overstructural joints must neverbe narrower than the structural joint.

Size of Movement Joints

The proper width of a movement joint is based on several criteria.Regardless of the width,as determined by mathematical calculations, the minimum functional width of a movement joint should be no less than 1/4" (6 mm); any joint narrower than this makes the properplacement of backerrods and sealant materials impractical and does not provide adequate movement allowance.

The width of a movement jointflled with sealant material must be 3 to 4 times wider than the anticipated movement in order to allowproperelongationand compressionof the sealantSimilarly the depth of the sealantmaterial mustnotbe greater thanhalf the width of the joint to allow forproper functioning of the movement joint (width/depth ratio). For example, if 1/4" (6 mm) of cumulative movement is anticipated in the floor,the movement joint should be 1/2-3/4"(12- 18 mm) wide and 1/4{-}3/8" (6-9\mathsf{mm}) deep.A rounded backup rod is inserted in the joint

to control depth,and tokeep the sealant frombonding to the substrate.Sealants are products that should onlybe bonded totwo parallel surfaces (the sides/flanksof two tiles).Sealant bonding to 3 surfaces (the sides/flanks of two tiles and the substrate) means that the sealant can lose 75% of its effectiveness.So the backer rod, which the sealant does not bond to,isvery mporant to the success of the sealant.

Sealants

Sealants should be a neutral cure,high performance (also known as ClassA,orhave,aShore-Ahardness of 25orgreater),viscous liquid type capable of 12.5-25% movement. Silicone sealants can have the ability to compress to 50% ofits original width and expand up to 100% Floors exposed toheavyvehiculartraffic (e.g.forklif or moving machinery) may require a sealant with a higher A-Shore hardness as specified.

Pre-fabricated movement joints, which typically consist of two L-shapedmetalangles connected byacured flexible material often may not meet the above movement capabilityrequired for an industrial application where extreme temperature changes occur (i.e. steam cleaning).Similarly, the selectionof non-corroding metal, suchasstainlesssteel, isrequired topreventcorrosionbyalkaline content of cement adhesive or galvanic reactions with othermetals.

Pre-fabricated movement joints are commonly installed in advance of the floring finishes, soitiscritical to prevent excessive mortar from protruding through the punched openings in the metal joint. The hardened mortarmaysbsequently prevent properbedingof the tile or finished flooring onto the floor in these areas.

Mechanical Properties

Sealants should have good elongation and compression characteristics,as wellastearresistance torespond to dynamic lods, thermal shock, and other rapid movement variations which are not unusual for industrial floors.Many industrial floors are exposed to extreme vibrationsfrom heavy machinery and are constantly under stress from these vibrations.

Compatibity

Some sealants may stain finishes, or curing by-products maybe corrosiveto concrete,metals,orwaterproofingmembranes.There aremanytypesand formulationsof sealantproducts,soitis importanttoverify compatibilityand acceptabilityfor the intended use. Compatibility varies by manufacturer's formulations, and not by sealantorpolymertype.Forexample,acetoxy siliconescureby releasing acetic acid and can be corrosive; neutral cure silicones do not exhibit this characteristic.

Fluid migration and resultant staining is another compatibilityissue to considerwith sealants.There is no correlation with polmer tpe (i.e. slicone vs. polyurethane) and fluid migration is dependent solely on manufacturer's formulation.Dirt contamination is another common problem and canbe associated withtype of exposure, surface hardness,type and length of cure,and formulation,bt not the sealant polymertype.Performingatest areato determine compatibilityis recommended to make sure that problems are not encountered in the field during installation.

Adhesion

Sealants must have good tensile adhesion to non-porous or porous finish suraces, ideallywithot specialpriming orsuface prearatin.

Subjective Criteria

Colorselection,aseofapplication,oxicitydor,maintenancei expectancy and costare some of the additional subjective criteria that do not affect performance,but do require consideration.

Types of Sealant

High performance sealants are synthetic,viscous liquid polmer compounds knownas polymercaptans, polthioethers, polysulfides polyurethanes, and slicones. Each type has advantages and disadvantages.As a general rule,polyurethane and silicone sealants aregdchoiceforceramictilaversdairybrickandrsius flooring finishes.

Polyurethanes and slicones are available in either one-component cartridge,sausage packs,orpails;some polyurethanes come in two-component bulk packages, which require mixing and loading intoasealantapplicatorgun.Bothtypesof sealants are typically available in a wide range of colors.

Installtion of sealants and accessories into movement joints requiresskilledinstallewhisfailiarwithselnt indsty practices.The installation must start witha clean,dry and dust free surface.Some products or materials require theuse of a primer to improve hesinorpreventfluidmgration.faprierisncessay itshouldbe installed before installtionof thebacker rodand it may be necessary to protect underlying flashing or waterproofing to avoid deteriorationbyprimersolvents.Anyexcessmortar, spacers orotherrestraining materials must be removed to preserve freedom of movmnfneay,protect thinishufacewithmki tape to facilitate the cleaning process.The use of a suitable backer rod orbondbreaking tape istypically used to prevent three-sided adhesion and to help regulate depth of the sealant. Once the sealanthasbeenapplied,itisnecessarytotoolorpressthesealant to ensure contact withthe tile orfinishedges; the backer rod also aids this process by transmiting the tooling force to the tile /finish edges. Proper fooling of the sealnt joint alsogives thesealanta slightlyconcave suface profileconsistenttothe interiorsurface against the rounded backer rod. This allows even compression/ elongation,and preventsavisully sinificantbulgeof thesealnt under maximum compression.

2.2 Structural Considerations

LOADS

Forcesthatactonstructuresare called lads.Typically,dead lads are staticin nature, which means theyeither do notchange or change infrequently. Dead load isessentially the weight of the structure itself; anything permanently attached to the structure would be considered partof the dead load.This would include walls flooring,rfing, columns, and so on.

Live loads are the weight of items in the building. Live loads are not static as they can change.Examples of live loads would be people, furniture and vehicular traffic(including forklifts). Live loads can have a profoundeffect onthe successofatile installation andon the long-termperformance of the entire structure.Suitableallowance must be made for allanticipated live loads with enough allowance to meet any aditional loads placed on the system in the future.

REQUIREMENTSOFBUILDINGDESIGN

Buildings mustbe designed forthe specificuse that they will be utilized for. The architect or engineerhas to know what the building is going tobeusedforinordertoproperlycalculate thedifferent live loads involved.Ifasecond storyfloorwere going tohaveforklifts drivingonit,the designprofessionalwouldhaveto calculate the total anticipated live load.Suitable allowance must be made for ll anticipated live loads with enoughallowance to meet any aditional loads placed on the system in the future.

DEFLECTION

Floor systemsoverwhich the tile will be installed, shallbe in conformance with the International Building Code (IBC) or applicable building codes forcommercial applications.Historically,for ceramic tile and paver applications, the maximum allowable deflection should not exceed L/360under total anticipated load.

The ceramic til industry abides by the following note on deflection: the owner should communicate inwriting to the projct design professional and general contractor the intended use of the tile installtoninordeenablethprjtdsignprfesnl generalcontractortomakenecessaryallowancesforthe expected live load, concentrated loads, impact loads, and dead lads including theweightof thetileandsetingbedThe tile installer shallt be responsibleforanyfloorframing or sub-floor instlltionnot compliant withapplicable building codes, unless the tile installeror tile contractor designs and installsthefloorframing orsub-floor"3 (see section10 Building Codes and IndustryStandards formore information). These are also good 'rules of thumb' to follow for otherresinous flooring finishtypes as thislevelof detailmaybe absent for other finish types.

2.3 Substrate Condition and Preparation

EVALUATIONOFSUBSTRATECONDITION

The firststep in substrate preparation is the evalationof the tpe of substrate and its surface condition. This includes the levelness (plane orfltessdevition),ientificationof general dets structuralcrack,shrinkagecrackslitanc,.,preen of curing compounds or surface hardeners, and contamination. Concrete should haveawood float orlightsteeltrowelfinish for properadhesionof thin-sets,membranes orresinousflooring finishes.Over-finishing aconcrete surface canclose thepores and may inhibit proper adhesion of these materials.

The ability ofasubstrate tobe wetted byanadhesiveis essential to good adhesion and important in determining the performance of the adhesive in bonding to the substrate. This means that not only should the substrate possessabalancebetweenporosity and texture,but also that the surface must be clean of any contamination suchasdust ordirt thatwould prevent weing and contact of anadhesive or coating.Thelevelnesstolerance or smoothness of a substrate surface also plays animportant role in allowing proper contact and weing of an adhesive.Typically, the greater the surface area to which the adhesive is in contact, the better the adhesion.

ADHESIVECOMPATIBILITY

Compatibility plays an important role in determining adhesion between the substrate and the finishes being installed.The substrate material must be compatible not only with adhesive /coating attachment,but also with the type of adhesive coating under consideration.This means that the substrate material must have good cohesive qualitiestoresisttensile and sheerstress and not have anadverse reaction withthe proposed adhesive /coating Similarly, the finishbeing installed must also be compatible with the adhesive.A general consideration in determining compatibility with adhesives / coating is as follows;

The installtion of any finishmaterial with an adhesive will only be as goodas the seting materials and the substrate to whichthe finish material will be bonded. The highest strength adhesives/ coatings and most careful application with the best quality tile / finish will not overcomeaweak or dirty substrate.

This section provides informationon the identification of common substrate characteristics and defects,and the preventative and corrective actions necessary for proper surface preparation.

SITEVISITAND CONFERENCE

Prior to commencing work,the contractorshall inspect surfaces toreceive finishes and accessories,and shllnotify thearchitet, general contractor, orother designated authority inwriting of any visually obvious defects orconditions that will preventsatisfactory installation.Installationwork shall not proceeduntil satisfactory conditions are provided. Commencing installtion of work typically means acceptance of substrate conditions.4

JOBSITE CONDITIONS

The following items are examples of potentil issues that may need to be addressed prior to commencing the installation:

Contamination

Anysurfacetoreceive tile orcoatingswillalwaysbeexposed to varying degreesof contamination,especiallynormal construction dust and debris. The installation of finish flooring is often the last phase of the construction of abuilding.Imagine all other trades have beenin andfinished their certain part of the construction, (i.e.sheet rock,plumbing,painting,and many other trades) There is often paint, drywall compound, oil and other materials on the concrete from prior trades that need to be removed.One of the most difficult jobsforany installeris thepreparation of the surface beforethe installation of the tile commences.But,itis one of the most imortant stps,ifnotthemost mporant stp,n proviig forαuccessfu, long lasting installation.Cleaning the surface is mandatory before finishes are placed, and sometimes multiple washings will have to take placebefore the finish work commences. Just sweeping the floor is not good enough!

With most adhesives or cementleveling mortars/renders,such as latex cement mortars or moisture insensitive adhesives, the substrate can be damp during installtion; however, it cannotbe saturated. The objective is not to saturate the floor, but to make sure all thedust andebris isremovedbefore tiing

MOISTURECONTENTOFCONCRETE

Materialsused in industrialapplications can be affected by moisture during the installtion and curing phase.For example, the strength of cementitious adhesives canbereduced fromconstant exposure to wet or damp substrates.Some materials,suchas waterproofing membranes,maynot cure properly ormay delaminate froma continually wet substrate.A damp substrate may also contribute to the formation of efforescence.

Therearegenerallythreeteststhatareusedtodeteminemoisture content in concrete.The three tests are ASTM F1869 (Standard TestMethod forMeasuring Moisture VaporEmissionRateof ConcreteSubfloors Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride),ASTM F2170 (Standard Test Method for Determining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using insitu Probes)and ASTM D4263 (Standard Test Method for Indicating Moisture in Concrete by the Plastic Sheet Method). The Calcium Chloride test involves placing a petridish of calcium chloride (covered by a plastic dome adhered to the concrete) on the concrete and allowing the petri dishto remain in place for between 60-72 hours. The calcium chloride absorbs any moisture vapor that transmits through the concrete within the plastic dome.The results of a calcium chloride test measures the amount of moisture absorbed and results are stated in pounds per 1,000 f2 (92.9\ensuremath{m}^{2}) in a 24-hour period. The Relative Humidity Test invoves placing probes inthe concrete and taking redings with ahygrometer A relative humidity reading of 75% or below is acceptable formost tile orcoating applications.The PlasticSheet Method involves taping 0.24"x24" (600mmx600mm piece of plastic on the concrete and allowing the plastic to remain in place for18— 24 hours to determine if any moisture has accumulated under the plastic when it is removed.Both ASTM F1869 and ASTMF2170are quantitative tests (stating approximatelyhow much moisture is present) while ASTMD4263 is aqualitative test (stating that moisture is present but not how much), and llarea "snapshot" of moisture vapor emission during the testing period. Please refer to Section 2.5 for more information onmoisture content in concrete.

Figure 2.5-ASTMF1869 Calcium Chloride Test Kit and ASTMF2170 Relative Humidity Meter.

Surface and Ambient Temperatures

During theplacement of concrete and installtion ofothertypes of substrates,extremecoldorhot temperaturesmaycausenumerous surface orinternaldefects, including shrinkage cracking,weak surface layer ofhardened concrete caused by premature evaporation,orfrostdamage.Oncetheconcreteiscured,extreme temperatures of both the ambient air and surface of the substrate can also affect the normal properties of tileadhesives, membranes and coatings.

Elevated ambient air and surface temperatures (>90°\mathsf{F} {\displaystyle[32°0]} 一 willacceleratethesetingof cementlatexcement,poxydhesives and resinous flooring products. Washing and dampening floors wil servetolowersurfacetemperaturesforlatexcementmortars and epoxy adhesives. Shading the substrate,if exposed to sunlight,is also effective in lowering surface temperatures, butif ambient temperatures exceed 100°F (35°0) , it is advisable to defer work with adhesives and coatings toα more suitable time.Humidity may also have an effect on the curing of membranes and portland cement-based adhesives and grouts. Higher humidity wi work to slow down cure rates while low humidity will accelerate the curing process.

Flatness and levelness

Aflat, plane substrate isanimortant concernforanytile orfloor coating installation requiring a direct bond adhesive application. Acceptable tolerance is 1/4" in 10' (6 mm in 3 m) and 1/16 (1.5 mm in 300mm) from the required plane to conform with the ANSIspecificationsforceramictileinstallations.Greaterdeviations prevent the proper installtionof tile into the adhesive, whichmay result in numerous problems, including loss of bond orlippage.

Iflevelnesstoleranceisxceeded,thenitmaybenecessar employ remedial work,suchas reconstruction,patching, grinding, or installtion of a selfleveling underlayment (e.g.NXT Level Plus or SUPERCAPe SC500) ora mortar bed (e.g.3701Forified Mortar Bed; or, 226 Thick Bed Mortar mixed with 3701Mortar Admix).

If the tolerance is within specifications, then the use ofalarge nd heavy tile (LHT) adhesive mortar and alargersize notch trowel can alleviate any minor defects in the substrate.Please note that whileα LHT mortarmaybe used to correctminorsubstrate defects,itis important to stay within the product manufacturer's guidelines for thickness of theseting material.Forthepreparationof substrates for LATCRETE resinous floring systems, please reference the specific requirements in each of the respective LATICRETE product data sheets for additional information.

CONCRETECURING-AGEOFCONCRETE

The age of a concrete substrate is important due to the fact that as concrete cures and loses moisture,it shrinks.Under normal conditions,28days is the time that it typicallytakes for concreteto reachitsfulldesignstrength.Thickersections of concrete maytakea longer time to reachfull design strength.At that point, concrete wil have maximum tensile strength and can betterresist the effects of shrinkage and stress concentration.

Depending upon the curing techniques and exposure to humidity or moisture, there maybe verylittle shrinkage in the first 28 days. Flexible adhesives, certinltexorpolymerfortified thin-set mortars or(e.g.257 TITANIUM" or MULTIMAX" Lite),can accommodate the shrinkage movement and stress that may occur in concrete less than 28 days old. In some cases it may be recommended to wait a minimum of 30—45 days to reduce the probabity of concentrated stress on the adhesive interface.Some building regulations or codes may require longer waiting periods of up to6 months.Affer this period,resistancetoconcentrated stressisprovidedbythetensile strengthgainoftheconcrete,and its abilityto shrinkasacomposite assembly The effect of the remaining shrinkage isignifianty reduced by its distribution over time and accommodated by the use of flexible adhesives.

CRACKING

Freshly placed concrete undergoesatemperature rise fromtheheat generated by cement hydration, resulting inanincrease involume. As the concrete coolsto the surounding tmperature, it contracts and is susceptible to what istermed“plastic shrinkage" cracking due to the lowtensile strength withinthe firstseveral hours after the pour.

Concrete also undergoes shrinkageasit dries out,and cancrack from buildup of tensile stress. Rapid evaporationof moisture results in shrinkage atan early stage where the concrete does not have adequate tensile strengthto resist even contraction.Concrete is most susceptible to drying shrinkage cracking within the first 28 days of placementduring whichit developsadequatetensilestrengthto resist a more evenly distributed and less rapid rate of shrinkage. It is for this reason that it is recommended to wait 30—45 days before direct application of adhesive mortars.

Plastic shrinkge occursbefore concrete reachesits initil set,while drying shrinkageoccursaftertheconcretesets.Thesetypesof shrinkage cracks generally donot produce cracks larger than 1/8" (3 mm) in width.

Treating Shrinkage Cracks

There are two diferent ways to treat shrinkage cracks forceramic tile and paver installations.The first wayis detailed inthe LATICRETE Architectural Guidebook－ES-F125(available at www.laticrete. com/ag) or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installtion－F125. This method only treats the individual crack and not the entire floor. Besure to follow theLATICRETE Execution Statement and detail ES-F125 or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installtion－F125 for proper installation recommendations.

The second method of treating the shrinkage crack would be detailed in the LATICRETE Architectural Guidebook-ES-F125A (available at www.laticrete.com/ag) or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installtion—F125A.This method uses the anti-fracture membrane over the entire flor.Following this method wilhelp to protect thefinished installtion from cracks currently inthe concrete substrate and any cracks which may develop over time.For the

treatment of concrete shrinkage cracks when coating with LATICRETE resinousflooringsystems,leasereferencethespecificrequirements in eachof the respective LATICRETE product data sheets for additional information.

Structural Cracks

There isnotile orcoatings installtion practice ormethod for treating any crack over1/8"(3 mm) wide or structural cracks that experience differential vertical movement.These cracks are considered structural innature and would require determination of the cause of the crack. Once the cause of the structural movement is determined, it mustbe remedid prior to repairing the flooring installtionRepairtechniquescanvaryandastructuralengineer should be consulted prior toanyremediation orinstallationofa floing system.

Excessive foundation setflement and movement can be caused by building on expansive clay,compressible ormproperly compactedfi soils, or improper maintenance around foundations.Whatever the cause,settlementcandestroythevalueofastructureandeven render it unsafe.Inany case, water is the basic culprit in the vast majority of expansive soil problems.Specificcomponents of certain soils tend to swell or shrink with variations in moisture. The extent of this movement variesfromsoiltpe to soiltpe

When unstable soils are used asabase forafoundation,the tendency formovement is transmitted to the foundation.Since soil movement is rarely uniform, the foundation is subjecttoavertical differential movement or upheaval. f all the soil beneatha foundation swellsuniformly, there usually is no problem. Problems occur,hwever,whennlyarftheslbseles.Then,differen movement causes cracks or other damages. Once again this conditionmustbecorrected before anyflooring installation can occur.

Potential Bond Breaking Materials

Aflooring installtion isonly as good as its adhesion to the substrate.Anadhesive or coing, inanyform, willbond to the fist thing it comes in contact with.If that material is dirt, dust, paint, or any otherimpediment that is lying onsurface,then the dhesion to that substrate can be compromised. The importance ofa good, cleansurfacecannotbeoveremphasized,regardlessof thesubstrate or flooring type.

Laitance

Laitance isasurface defect inconcrete whereathinlayer of weakened porland cement fines have migrated to the surface with excess“bleed"water or air from unconsolidated air pockets. Once theexcesswaterevaporates,itleavesbehindathinlayerofwhat appears tobeahard concrete surface,but in realityis weakened due to the high water to cement ratio at the surface.Laitance has a verylowenile strength,nd threfore tedheionoffloorig systems willbe limited by the low strength of the laitance.

Mechanical methods,including the use of chipping hammers or scarifying machines, are recommended.Concrete should be removed untilsoundcleanconcreteisencountered.Measurementofsurface tensilestrengthand the absence of loose materialare good indicators of sound concrete.

Abrasive blasting bymeans of dry,wet orbead/shotblastmehd are preferred forthe removal of laitance onnew and fully cured concrete.Compressed air used inthese methods must be oil free. Since wet abrasive blasting reintroduces moisture into the concrete, sufficient drying time must be allowed.

Curing Compounds and Sealers

Liquid curing compounds and sealers are topicallyapplied materials, which are designed to keep moisture in the slab. The constant amount of waterkeptinthe concrete by the curing compounds helps accelerate the curing time and improve the performance of the concrete.Curing compounds and concrete sealers are frequently used in all types of construction, especially in fast track jobs. Unfortunately,lltypesof curing compounds, concrete sealersand surface hardeners mustbe completely removed from the slab prior to the floring installtion. Thebest method toremove these curing compounds from the surface would be to bead-blast orshot-blast the concrete surface.

There isaverysimple and effective test toidentify the presenceof curing compounds,sealers orotherbond breaking conditions.Smply sprinkle afew drops of water onto the substrate and see what happens.If water absorbs into the slab thenit is usually suitable for the direct dhesion of tile or coatings. On the otherhand,if the water beadsup onthe concrete surface (like water ona freshly waxed car)thenthere issomething present ontheconcrete surface that can inhibit proper adhesion.

Tile and Paver Installations over Existing Coatings

Seamless epoxy floors are used inmany applications.It is important to note that these epoxyflor coverings are muchdifferent than epoxy painted surfaces.Forexample,warehouses,labs,auomobile shops and dealerships,loading docks,and many more applications use epoxy coatings.Many renovation projects or new ownership in buildings desire to install new tile over theepoxy coatings.There are two options forinstalling tile over an epoxy floor coating.The first optionwoulbetoremvethepxycoingbyhotblasting bead-blastin omechical scaricationOelthey is removed, installation of the tile can commence directly over the concrete.

The second option would be to install the tile with LATAPOXY?300 Adhesive.The onlytype of product that willbond toan epoxy coated floor is an epoxyadhesive.The existing epoxy floormust be well bonded withnoloose peeling epoxy orchipsintheepoxy coating. The coting needs tobevery clean and freefromall dust, oils waxes,ornythepsiblebondbrekes.ftherearelooeelg spots orchips inthe coting,itisagood indication that the cotig may need to be completely removed prior to installing tile.

SUBSTRATEPREPARATIONEQUIPMENT ANDPROCEDURES

To determine ibond inhibing contamintionsuchasoil orcring compounds are present onconcrete,conduct the following test: taking propersafety precautions, mixa1:1 solutionof aqueous hydrochloric (muriatic)acid and water, and place a few drops in various locations.f the solutioncausesfoming action, thentheacid is allowed torect freelywith the alkaline concrete, indicating tht there is nolikel contamination. If there islite orno rection, chances are the surface is contaminated with oil or curing compounds Acidsdonotaffect orremove oilyorwaxyresidue,somechanical removal may be necessary.

CONTAMINATION REMOVAL

If contaminationremoval isrequired, orif surface damage ordefects exist,bulkurfaceremovalmaybenecessarytpreparethesubstrate to the required concrete surface profle (CSP)ofthepecicflooring system that is being installed..There are several methods of removal but it is important to selectαmethod that is appropriate to the substrate material and will not cause damage to the sound material below the surface. The following methods are recommended:

METHODSOFREMOVAL

Mechanical Chipping, Scarifying and Grinding

Mechanical chipping, scarifying or grinding methods are recommended only when substrate defects and/or contamination exist inisolated areas andrequirebulksurfaceremoval greaterthan 1/4" (6 mm) in depth. Chipping with a pneumatic square tip chisel or grinding with an angle grinder are common mechanical removal techniques.

Figure 2.6 — Dustless Grinding.

Shot-blasting

This is a surface preparation method which uses proprietary equipmentto pummel the surface of concrete withsteelpelletsat highvelocity.Thepellets of varying dimeters, arecirculated in closed,self-containedchamber,wherethepelletsand debrisre separated.The debrisis collected in one containerand thepellts are re-circulated for continueduse.This is the preferred method of substrate preparation whenremoval of a thinlayer of concrete surface isrequired,especially the removal of surface films (e.g. curing compounds or sealers) or paint.

Figure 2.7- Blastac Inc.ShoBlasting Machinr.

Water-Blasting

Highpressure waterblasting using pressuresover300010000 psi (21—69 MPa) willremove the surface layer of concrete and expose aggregate to provide aclean,roughsurfaceThorough rinsing of theurfacewithwateferwaterblsting isnecessay to remove any laitance.Water-blasting is only recommended on concrete because of the highpressure.Proper allowance mustbe made to allowfor the excess water in the slabto dry.This method is commonly used on verical surfaces.

Acid Etching

Acid etching or cleaning is never recommended to cleanasurface prior to receiving flooring finishes.Ifan acid is not neutralied or cleaned properlyafter the cleaning takes place,itcancontinue o weakenthe flooring installation materials when in the presence of moisture.Acid must be neutralized with Tri-Sodium Phosphate orbaking sodamixed withwater and then completely rinsed to ensure all theacidis removed from the surface.Again, acid is no recommended forcleaning concretesinceit has anadverseaffect on portland cement.A chemical reaction occurs when portland cement and acid are introduced to each otherthat candestroy the cement matrix. The interaction between the acid and the porland cement exposesthe concrete aggregates and weakensthe concrete

Acid canalsoleaveawhite powdery substanceonthe surface which can act asabond breaker forany tile installationmaterial.To avoid any potential problems itis bestto avoid the use of acids asa substrate preparation method.

FINALSURFACE(RESIDUE) CLEANING

The final and most importantstep of substrate preparation is the final cleaning,not only of the residue from contaminationand bulk removal processes described above,butalso cleaning of loose paricles and dust from airborne contamination.

The final leaning is considered minimum preparation for al substrates.Finalcleaning canbe accomplishedbypressurized water as mentioned above,but can also be accomplished with standard pressure water and some agitation to eliminate the bondbreaking effect of dust films. In some cases, airborne contamination is constant, requiring frequent washing just prior to installationof cement leveling plaster/renders,adhesive mortas, membranes or coatings.

There is no exception from this general rule and the only variation is the drying time of thesubstrate prior to the application of the adhesive or coating. Drying time is dependent on the type of adhesive being used.With most adhesives, the substrate can be damp, with no standing water. A surface filmof water will inhibit grab and bond of even water insensitive cement and epoxy-based adhesives. he use ofadamp sponge just priorto installation of tile is anindustry accepted method to ensure that the substrate is cleaned of any dirt and construction dust onthe properly prepared substrate.

Contaminated Slab Alternative

On contaminated concrete slabs where itis notfeasible to remove the top surface byasuitable method,anunbonded (wire-reinforced) mortar bed would be the best alternative.Please refer to the LATICRETEES-F1llavailable at www.laticrete.com/ag or to Section 10 for more information.

Figure 2.8- Installtionof anunbondedmortarbedDigram couresyof Intenational Masonry Institute18

2.4 Uncommon Substrates

ASPHALTICWATERPROOFINGMEMBRANES

Asphaltic (petroleum-based)waterproofing placedoversubstrate surfaces are generallynot compatible with ile installationadhesives. The presence of this typeof waterproofing would dictate the method of installation that would have to be used. An unbonded wire reinforced mortarbed (ES-F111), available at www.laticrete com/ag,wouldbe thebestoptionforinstalling overthistype of waterproofing product.(See Section10 forexecutions statement on this method).

STEEL AND METAL (seesection 2.7 for mor information)

Stee and metal substrates require anepoxy adhesive or the mechanical fastening of diamond metal lathto the steel and the installationof amortarbed due tothehighdensityand very lw porosity of this type of material.Portland cement or latex porland cementadhesives,bythemselves,donotdevelopadequate bond tometals without expensive preparation orspecialadhesive formulations (See Section 10 for an execution statement on this method).Please refer to LATICRETE ES-S313 and ES-314 at www.laticrete.com/ag or to Section 10 for more information.

EXTERIORGLUEPLYWOOD

Plywood and other wood-based products generally have high water absorption rates, and undergo rates of volumetric swelling and subsequent shrinkage that make these materials unsuitable as a substrate in industrial applications. The Tile Council of North America (TCNA) clasifies most plywood floor substrates asresidential and light commercialuse.This classificationwould negateusing plwood in any type of industrial application.

2.5 Concrete -Slab-On-Grade

PLACEMENTOFCONCRETESLAB

The vast majority of all commercial tle and flooring systems installations are adhered directly to concrete.The most important factor for good,hard concrete is the water-fo-cement ratio.Concrete needs water to hydrate and harden,but to much water can have a detrimental effecton concrete.Too litle water will also affect the final performance of the concrete product.Understanding water and its effect on concrete is critical toachieving the desired results froma concreteslab.Waterescapesfrom concrete via evaporationandalso transpires through concrete from othersources and passes through as moisture vapor.

The water used to mix concrete must be clean (potable)and free of acids, aklis oils,orsufatesThs isnessaryforpropehatn and curing of the concrete.There is a direct relationship between the strength characteristic of porland cement-based concrete and the amount of water used per weight of cement. This is known as

Abram's Law(Duff Abrams,1918).Essentilly,the lower the waterto-cement ratio thehigher the resultant physical properties of the concrete willbe.Rule of thumb; LESS WATER \c= BETTER CONCRETE. 5

Figure 2.9－Placement of Concrete Slab (Photo couresyof California State DOT).

A properlydesigned concretemixturewillpossessthedesired workabilityforthe fresh concrete and therequired durability and strengthfor the hardened concrete.ypically, amixis about 10-15% cement, 60{-}75% aggregate (fine and coarse combined), 15perthousand water and 5-8% entrained air.6 The project engineer or design professionalis responsible forspecifying the actual concrete properties as required for each individual project.

Concrete will veryoffenhave anexcessamount of wateradded to makethe concrete easilyworkable.However,because portland cement only requiresa certain percentage of its weight tohydrate, the excess water(water of convenience)willeventullyescape. Muchof the excess water will ecape through capillary action (bleeding) while the concree is inits plastic state during consolidationand finishing operations.Propercureof concreteto attain the desired physical properties requires that moisture in concrete be maintained foraminimum of 3 to7 days depending on temperature,humidity,yeof cement, nd typef admixtures used.

Typically, the first thing thataconcrete contractorwill doonajob site is performaslump test to make sure that the concrete meets the slump criteri for that particuar concrete.Unfortunately,many concrete contractors do notlike the workability of concrete that passes the slump test.If this is the case,thenthe next words heard on the job site are"ADD MORE WATER".The concrete contractor may, without their knowldge,beaffecting the final performancef the concrete. The fact is, if one extra gallon (3.8 L) of water is added to a cubic yard (\mathsf{l_{\Pi m^{3}}}) of 3,000psi (21MPa) concrete then one or more of the following problems may occur:

1. Finished concrete can develop 5% less than its intended design strength
2. Slump may increase by 1" (25 mm)
3.Compressive strength can be lowered by 150psi (1 MPa) or more
4.The effect of 1/4 sack of concrete can be wasted
5. Shrinkage potential increases
6.Resistance to attack by de-icing saltsis decreased
7.Freeze/thawresistance canbe decreased by 20%

IMPORTANCEOFVAPORRETARDERS

Vaporretardersarenecessarybecauseconcreteisamoistureand vapor-permeable material. In fact, concrete can be thought of as beingveryhard,densesponge.Moisturevaporeasilypasses through concrete and canlead to problems withceraintypes of imperviustil,membranesetting materials,andtheref flring materials. In many cases, thevapor retarder is typically 10 mil (.25 mm) thick polyethylene sheet placed directly under the concrete slab.Chosing the propervapor retardercanbe important since many polyethylene sheet materials are made with some recycled organic content.This organic content can decay over time leaving voids or holesthrough the sheeting; rendering it as an ineffective barrer.Forbetter long termperformance,architects and engineers are recommending 100% virgin polyethylene or 15 mil reinforced polyolefinas thevapor retarderProper placement and installation of thevaporretardershould alsobe specified by aqualified architect orengineer and shown in project details.No matter whatmaterial isused as the vapor retarder,itshould confor to ASTME1745(Standard SpecificationforWaterVaporRetarders Used in Contact with Soil or Granular FillUnder Concrete Slabs).

Figure 2.10 — Typical 15 Mil Thick Sheet Type Vapor Retarder Photo Courtesy of Insulation Solutions.Inc.

A vapor retarder must have a maximum perm rating of 0.3 perms (0.2 metric perms) when tested by ASTM E96 (Standard Test Method forWaterVaporTransmissonofMaterials)Togiveyouan example of what a perm is, 7003 perms translates to1Ib/1,000 f2 (.45\kg/92.3\ m^{3})/24 hours of moisture vapor as determined using the calcium chloride test ASTMF1869 (Standard Test Method for Measuring MoistureVapor Emission RateofConcrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride). This means that moisture vapor can transpire through the vaporretarderbutat an extremelylow rate.A properly specified and placed vapor retarderwill not allow any passage of moisture vaporthroughpenetrations in theslab orat the perimeter.Good detailing,seaming and sealing of the vapor retarder is necessaryto ensure that the required performance is attained.A good, properly placed and installd vapor retarer can also help to limit radon infitration through a slab and into the structure.

PLACEMENTOFVAPORRETARDERS

ACI Committee 302,"Guide forConcrete Slabs that Receive Moisture-Sensitive Flooring Materials"(ACI 302.2R-06)states in section7.2 that some speifiers require concrete tobe placed on the vapor retarder,andothers require placement of a granular blotter layerbeweentheconcreteandthevaporretarder.Aswithmany engineering decisions, the location ofavapor retarder is offen compromise between minimizing water vapor movement through the slab and providing the desired short-and long-term concrete properties.

There are benefits nd drawbacksto each method.Therefore, proper detailing is very important not only to the performance of a flooring system but also to the potential health and safety of building occupans.

The original method places the vapor retarder directly onto the compacted soil. Next a 4" (100 mm) granular base blotter layer is placed onthevaporretarderwithconcretepoured ontop.Basedon the reviw of problem installtions incorporating this method it became clearthat thefillcourseabove thevaporretardercantake on waterfromrain,wecuring,wet grinding orcutting,d cleaning.Unable to drain, the wet or saturated fillprovides an additionalsource of water that contributes to moisture vapor emissionfrom the slab.These moisture vaporemission rates canbe well in excess of the 3 to 5 Ib/1,000 f2/24hr (1.4 to 2.3 kilo/ 92.9\mathsf{m}^{2}/24 hr) recommendation by many of the floor covering manufacturers.

Asaresultof theseexperiencesand thedificutyinadquately protecting thefilcourse fromwaterdring the constructionprocess caution is advisedas to the use of the granular fillayerwhen moisture-sensitive finishes are tobe applied to the slabsurface.The committeesbelieve that when the use of avapor retarder is required, the decision whethertolocate thematerial indirect contact withthe slab orbeneathalayerof granularfillshouldbe madeona case-by-case basis.Each proposed installation should be independently evaluated toconsiderthemoisturesensitivity of

subsequent floorfinishes, anticipated project conditions and the potentil effectsof slab culing and cracking. Itis also very important to lapup the vaporretarder onto thevertical plane and to sealoffanypenetrations thrughthe sheting ensure maximum protection against vapor and moisture intrusion.

Figure 2.12-Decision flow chart to determine if a vapor barrie is requiredandwhereitistobeplaced.hart courtesyofAmerican Concrete Institute (ACI— 302.2R-06).

DRIVERSOFMOISTUREVAPOR

There are some very common reasons for having high moisture vapor emission problems in slabs. The most obvious would be d concrete slabwithout theplacementofavaporretarder.Withouta vapor retarder there is nothing to prevent or limit any moisture underneath the slab from passing through the concrete. Soil capillarity can contribute as much as 12 gallons (45 L) per1,000 f (92.9m^{2}) per daytounprotected slabsfromsaturated shallow water tables.Broken pipes orleaking sewer lines cansaturate the slab without obvious loss of water pressure.Some industridl applications have sump pumps underneath the slab to remove heavy chemicals and water used to clean machinery and floors. The pipes forthese pumpscanbecome corroded and eventuallycompromised by these chemicals and the soil underneath the slab can become saturated.Over-watered plantbeds are another obviouscontributor of water to building slabs as well.

When there isvapor pressure diferentil, the highr prsse systemwillforcemoistureintothelowerpressuresystemMoisture vaporwillconsistentlymove fromareasof highpressuretoareasof low pressure.If sufficientmoisture volume exists at the source and the concrete slabhaslowresistanceto moisture,thenthe potentil for floor covering orcoating failure increases.Under the right conditions, there mayalsobe sufficient moisture available to encourage the colonizationof fungi Indoorair quality and human health issuescanbeafarcostlieroutcome ofexcessiveconcrete moisture vapor emission than simply the loss of a floor.0

Figure 2.13—Placement of vapor retarderoverblotterlayer/ directlyunderthe concree pr.

The chart (Figure 2.14) above helps to explain how temperature and humidity work to draw moisture into a structure through walls and concrete slabs. Ifthe temperature of the soilunderastructure is 55°\mathsf{F} (13°0) and the relative humidity is 100% then the static pressure equals 0.214 ， if the building interior is at 70°\mathsf{F} (21°0 and the humidity .S 30% then the static pressure equals 0.108. This means that the moisture is driven into the building through the slab moving from the area of high pressure to the area of low pressure.Properplacementofasuitable vaporretardercan help to minimize moisture vapor transmision.

Negative Hydrostatic Pressure

A common misconception points to negativehydrostatic pressure as the culprit infloor covering failures.Negative hydrostatic pressure can only occur when there is a physical water source higher than the slab.Therfor,itisveryare thtntivehstatic pre condition exists ona project.

TESTINGFORMOISTUREINCONCRETE

Many variables affect the results of moisture and pH tests commonly used to determine the moisture-related acceptability of concrete floors.Failure to runthe test correctly can produce eroneous and misleading results.Owners and contractors mustunderstand that accurate floor tests must be conducted after the HVAC system is operating and the building has been at service conditions for 48 hours orlonger.Most floors will not evenbeginto dry until the building has been enclosed and the HVAC system is running.

The building owner or general contractor should hire an independent testing agent to conduct floormoisture testing.Testers should be trained and certified.The test results should bereviewed bythe design professional ora knowledgeable consultant to determine whether the flooris ready to receive an aplied finish.

Figure 2.15－ Drawing showing movement of moisture vapor througha concrete slab.

Mostmoistureests,whetherformoisturevapormissins,retive humidity,ormoisturecontent,measurepropertyhat change affer the tileorotherfloorcovering is installed.Concreteatthe bottom of the slab in contact with the vapor retarder contains more moisture than the concrete at the surface.The moisture condition at the interface between the concrete and finishflooring changes becase ortonatthuface isnereethefoin is installdThis istue evenif the vapor retarder is propely installed, thewatertcement ratio isless than.50,and thefr is protected to prevent re-wetting.Watermoves from the bottom of theslabtoward thetopdrivenbydifferences invaporpressure between the high relative humidity at the bottom and the lower relative humidity at the top (as noted inFigure 2.14). Changes in temperature and relative humidity above and below the slab affect the static pressure and, inturn,the drive of moisture vapor.

Curent practice (if required) is for the flooring installer to measure the moisture and pH of the floor and submit the results to the general contractor or construction manager. Too offen these results are not transmitted tothedesignteam,norare the testsperformed as the designteammighthave preferred.Moisturevaporemission rates are critical to the long term performance ofa tile installation that incorporates a waterproofing or crack isolation membrane.Typical liquid appied waterproofing/anti-fracture membranes (e.g.HYDRO BAN or 9235 Waterproofing Membrane or many LATICRETEfloor coatings) require that the maximum amount of moisture in the concrete substrate not exceed 5 Ibs/1,000 f2/24 hours (2.26\kg/92.9\ m^{2}/24 hours) perASTMF1869(StandardTestMethod forMeasuring MoistureVapor Emission Rate of concrete subfloor using anhydrous calcium chloride)or 75% relative humidity as measured with moisture probes as perASTM F2170 Standard Practice forPreparing Concrete Floors to Receive Resient Flooring).

High alkalinity in conjunction with ahighmoisture vapor emission rate may affect the long-tferm performance of certain types of adhesives and “peel n' stick" asphaltic-type membranes. These adhesives and membranes maysoffenand deteriorate when subjected tohigh alkalinity.Alkalinity canbe measured bypeforming astandard concrete surface pH test in compliance with ASTM F710 (Standard Practice for Preparing Concrete Floorsto Receive Resilient Flooring).

The design team should not leave the testing to the flooring installer. Specificationsshould require the owner's testing agency conduct these tests and report theestresultstothe tile installr, general contrator or construction manager, and the design team.The specifications also should requirethat eachtestbeconducted inaccordance withASTM standard test methods, or that any deviations from these methods be approved by the design team \.If high moisture vapor emissions are present onthe project,theuse of vapor reduction membrane (e.g. VAPOR BAN or NXTVAPORREDUCTION MEMBRANE) is recommended.

COMMONLYUSEDMOISTURETESTPROCEDURES

Calcium ChlorideTestASTM F1869(Standard TestMethod for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride)

Acalciumchloride testmeasuresMoistureVaporEmisionRates (MVER)passing through or from concrete and gives results measured in pounds of moisture per 1,000 f2 (98.3\ensuremath{\ m^{2}}) in a 24 hour period. Three calcium chloride tests should be conducted for the first 1,000 ff² (98.3 m2)and one aditional test per1,000 f2 (98.3\ensuremath{\ m^{2}}) within 060-72 hourtime frame oras requiredbydesignteam.These tests are "snapshot"for the specific time/date when the testing takes place and results can vary when calcium chloride tests are performed on different dates. Calcium chloride testshould onlybe performed afterabuilding has been completely enclosed and the HVAC system hasbeenoperating for a prescribed length of time. Check with the manufacturer of the moisture test kit for complete instructions and recommendations.

Figure 2.16－ Calcium Chloride Test in place (Photo Couresy of Vaprecision).

Relative Humidity Testing ASTM F2170 (Standard Test for Determining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using In-Situ Probes)

Relativehumiditytesting(alsoreferred toas insitutesting)involves dilling ahole into the concrete and insering a plasticseve. The sleeveissealed andpressureisallowed to equalizeforprescribed length of time.Ahygrometer probeisinsered into the sleeve and the reading is taken.Instructions for frequency and location of testing shouldbe followedasrecommended bydesignprofessional or engineer.Relative humidity testing canmeasure atselected depths of the concrete depending onthe depth of the hole that is measured by the probe.

Figure 2.17-In SituMoisture Testing.

The results of relative hmidity testing are measured inpercentages A reading of 75% roughly translates into 3 Ibs/1,000 ff (1.4kg/98.3m^{2})/24 hours as measured by a ASTM F1869 calcium chloride test (see 2.4.4.1). A reading of 80-85% roughly translates into 5 Ibs/1,000 ft (2.2\kg/98.3\ m^{2})/24 hours).

PlasticSheetTestASTM D4263(Standard Test for Determining Moisture in Concrete by the Plastic Sheet Method)

This test method isqualitativeandonlyprovidesstatic resultsat the moment that the test is completed.This test method will not provide quantitativemoisturelevelresultsand isstrictlyused todetermineif moisture is present.This isgenerally consideredanoutdated method to measure moisture transmissions.

Figure 2.18 ASTM D4263 Plastic Sheet Method -18" x18" (45 cm x 45 cm) sheet of plastic istightly taped to the substrate and allowed to sit undisturbed for 24hours.waterondentionibervdthnmsurefmisture transmisionsispresentThistest wil not providequantitivemoisture vpor emission rate.

EFFLORESCENCE

Efflorescence isawhite crystallinedepositthatformsonornear the surfacef concretemasonrygroutandthercementbased materials. Itis the most common post-installation condition in tile, stone and brick masonry installations.

Efforescence canrange froma cosmetic annoyance that is easily removed,toserious problemthat could cause adhesivebond failureorrequireextensivecorrectiveconstructionandaggressive removal procedures.

Figure 2.19－Presence of Efforescence onsurface of concreteslab.Moisture migration throughthe slab can carry destructive salts to the surface of the concrete slab. <br>Figure 2.20- Common Sources of soluble salts

Efflorescencestartsssalts,presentnporlandcementproducts,whih are put into solution by the addition of water. The salt is then transported by capillary action (or gravity onwalls) toasurface exposed totheair.The solution evaporates,thesaltsreactwithcarbon dioxide and a white crystalline deposit remains.Efflorescence canalso occurbeneath the surface or within ceramic tile orbrick.Efforescence occurs whenthe three conditionslisted below occur.Whiletheoretically, efflorescence cannot occurif one condition does notexist,it is impractical to completely eliminate the confluence of these conditions.

Causes of Efflorescence

- Presence of Soluble Salts -Presence of Water (for Extended Period) -Transporting Force (Gravity Capilary Action, Hydrostatic Pressure, Evaporation, etc...)

Presence of Soluble Salts

There are numerous sources of soluble saltslisted in Table 2.20. There isalways the potentil foreforescence when concrete and cement mortars,adhesives and grouts are exposed to the weather. Othersourcesofsoluble saltscanbemonitored,controlledor completely eliminated.

Efflorescence -Sources of Soluble Salts

-Hydration of Cementitious Materials (Calcium Hydroxide) - Calcium Chloride Contamination Sea Salt (Airborne, Sand) -Mixing Water (Calcium Sulfate or Calcium Chloride Water Soffeners) - Cement AcceleratororAnt-Freeze Admixtures (Calcium Chloride) - Acid Etching and Cleaning Residue (Chlorides)

Cement Hydration-The most common source of efflorescence is from portland cement-based materials (e.g.concrete,cement plasters/renders,concrete masonry units,cementbackerboard units, and cement-based mortars, including latex cement dhesive mortars).One of the natural byproducts from cement hydration (the chemical process of hardening) is calcium hydroxide, which is soluble in water. If porland cement-based products are exposedtowaterforprolongedperiodsand evaporateslowly,the calciumhydroxidesolutionevaporates onthesurface,combines with carbondioxide and forms calcium carbonate, one of the many forms of efforescence.Once the calcium hydroxide is transformed to calcium carbonate efforescence, thenitbecomes insoluble inwater making stain removal dificut.

Calcium Carbonate Contamination - A common source of soluble salts is either direct orairborne salt-water contamination of mixing sand and the suface of the substrate.Mixing water can also be contaminated withhighlevels of soluble salts pically, wate with lessthan2,000 ppm of total dissolved solids will nothave any significanteffect onthehydrationof porland cement,although lower concentrations can stilcause some efflorescence.

Presence of Water

While itisdifficulto control naurallyoccuring soluble salts in cementitiousmaterials,properdesign,constructionandmaintenance ofa concrete floorand its finish materials can minimize water penetration.Without sufficient quantities of water, salts donot have adequate time to dissolve and precipitate to the surface of a concrete slabortileinstallation,ndefflorescencesimplycannot occur. Using less“water of convenience" can alsohelp to minimize the occurrence of efflorescence.

Forexteriorinstallations,rainand snoware theprimary sources ofwater.For interior instlations, the primary source iscleaning water.roken pipes,poorsoil drainage and inadequate rainwater evacuation can also contribute to high moisture levels within a building.

Sealers and Coatings

Waterrepellent coatingsare commonly specifiedasatemporary and somewhat ineffetive solution to fundamentallypoorslab designand construction.nsomecases,waterrepellentsmay actuallycontribute to,rather than prevent the formation of efforescence.Water repellentscannotstopwaterfrompenetrating cracksormovement joints in theslab.As any infiltrated water travels to the surfaceby capillaryctiontvaporate, it isstoppedbythrepellent,whre it evaporates through the coating (mostsealers have some vapor permeability)and leaves behind the soluble salts to crystallize justbelow the surface of thewater repellentThe collectionof efflorescenceundertherepellent coating may csespalling of the concrete.

Effects of Efflorescence

The initiloccurrence of efforescence is primarly considered an destheticuisanceHwever,i the fndmental cse (typicll water infiltration) islef uncorrected, continued efforescencean becomeafunctional defect and affect the integrity and safetyof floorin installation.

The primary concern is the potential forbond failure resulting from continued depletion of calcium and subsequent loss of strengthof cementitious adhesives and underlying cement-based components. The crystallizationof solublesaltscan exertmore pressure ond flooring system than the volume expansion forces of ice formation.

Efflorescence Removal Methods and Materials

Prior toremovalof efflorescence,itishighly recommendedo analyzethe cause ofefforescence and take corrective actionto prevent recurrence.Analysis of the cause willalso provide clues as to the type of efflorescence and recommended cleaning method without resorting to expensive chemical analysis.

Determine the age of the installtionat the time the efflorescence appearedInbuildingslessthanone yearold,the source fsalts are usually fromcementitiousmortars and grouts,and thewatersource is commonly residual construction moisture.The appearance of efflorescence inan olderbuilding indicates a newwaterleak ornew source of salts,suchasfrom acid cleaning residue.Do notoverlook condensationorleaking pipes asawatersource.Locationof the efflorescencewilloffercluesastotheentrysource of water

Chemical analysisof efforescence canbe conducted bya commercial testinglaboratoryusingseveraltechniquesto accuratelyidentifythetypes of minerals present.Thisprocedureis recommended forbuildings with anextensive problem,orwhere previous atfempts to clean with minimally intrusive methods have failed.

Removal methods vary according to the type of efflorescence. Therefore,itisof criticalmportanceto evaluate thecauseand chemical composition of efforescence prior to selecting removal method.

Manyefflorescence saltsarewatersoluble andwildisappearwith normal weathering or dry brushing.Washing is only recommended whentemperatures arewarm so thatwashwatercan evaporate quickly and nothave theopportunity to dissolve more salts.

Efflorescence that cannotbe removed with water andscrubbing requires chemical removal.The use of muriatic acid is a conventional cleaningmethodforstubbornefflorescence,however,evenwith carefulpreparation,acid etching canoccurTherearelessaggressive alternatives to muriatic acid, including aless aggressive sulfamic

acid, available in powdered form.This acid dissolved in water between 0.5-10% concentrationshould be strong enoughto remove stubborn efflorescence without damage to the cementitious material.

Regardless of the cleaning method selected, the cleaning gent should not contribute additional soluble salts.Forexample,acid cleaning can deposit potassium chloride residue (asoluble salt)if not applied, neutralized and rinsed properly.

Acidsshouldnotbeusedonpolishedstoneorglazed tilbecause the acid solution can etch and dull the glaze or polished surface. Acids can react with compounds in the tile glaze and deposit brown stains onthe tile surface which are insoluble and impossible to remove without ruining the tile.

Beforeapplying anyacidorcleaning solution,alwaystestamall, inconspicuous area to determine if anyadverse effects may occur. Just priortoapplication,aturate thesurfaces withwaterto prevent acid residue from absorbing below the surface.While most acids quicklylose strength upon contact withacementitious material and do notdissolve cement belowthe surface,saturating the surface is more important to preventabsorption of soluble saltsresidue (potassium chloride) which then cannot be surface neutralized and rinsed with water. This condition initself canbe asource of soluble salts and allowrecurrence of the efflorescence problemintended to be corected by the acid cleaning.

Application of acid solutionsshouldbe made to smallareasless than 10 ff (\mathsf{l}\mathsf{m}^{2}) and left to dwellforno more than5 minutes before brushing with siffacid-resistant brushand immediatel rnsing with water.Alwaysfollowthe acid manufacturer's directions for diing,minglton,,ltin, rinsing techniques.

2.6 Suspended Concrete Slabs

With advancements inconcrete and concrete placement technolgy the number of suspended (elevated)concrete slabs being placed is increasing around the world.There are numeroustypes of cast-inplace and pre-cast concrete floorsystems available that can satisfy any structural,span orloading conditions.Since the cost ofafloor system isamajor part of the structure and the building cost, then selecting themost effective forsystemismportant toachieving overall pefomance of the building.

The abilty to customize load capacityto suit the usage requirementflectionnherenfireresistanceefinstltn and the ability to create long spans makes concrete the materil of choice for industrial applications. The ability to finish the floor with awide variety of finish materials (including tile),permanently mount heavy machinery and the capability to stand up to extreme conditions are added benefits of concrete.

Defining the proper suspended slab tpe, reinforcement mthod thickness,span,load bearing capacity,and all otherperformance requirements is theresponsibityofaqualified design professional and/orstructural ngineerand isbsedonexpectedlods,ge environment and much more.

We willtakealokat several differenttypesof suspended concrete slabs.

CAST-IN-PLACECONCRETESLABS

The main components and expenses of cast-in-place concrete slabs are theconcrete,reinforcement (eithermild orpost-tensioned) and formwork.A major emphasis of the need for reinforcement in Suspended concrete slabsisthefact thatconcrete,whilestrongin compressioniswekinenlenfrlstghtiss underforcesof tension,socombining concreteand steeltogether makes for an extremely strong and versatile building material.By combining the propertiesf reinforcingsteewith concretyu achieve abuilding material that can easily resist both compressive and tensile forces.

Benefits canalsobe achievedby using the reinforcing materials to placeadditionalforces onthe concrete to place it incompression.y compressing theconcrete,additionaltensilestrengthcanberealized This additional tensile strength (stiffness) can provide an architet with the ability to achieve longer spans witha thinner concrete slab. Another benefit of tensioning concrete raises the capabity of the slabtoresisthedevelopment of shrinkge cracks.Inthory, the more the concrete issqueezed together, thelesslikelyit is that concrete slab shrinkage cracks willdevelop.12

Mild reinforced concrete slabs arepoured inplace,overframework, and around a steel reinforcement (rebar) grid.These rebar grids are mostoffenassembled onsiteas defined byinstallation drawings with concrete poured around the reinforcing. This tye of reinforcement is most offen used in steel frame (deck) concrete slabs.

POSTTENSIONEDCONCRETESLABS

Post-tensioning isa method of stressing concrte in which tendons have tension applied after the concrete has hardened and the pre-stressing force is primarily applied through the end plates or anchorages.Unlike pre-tensioning,which can only be done at pre-cast manufacturing facility, post-tensioning is performed in-sit on the job site.

Concrete slabsusuallyutlie ultrahigh-strengthsteelstrandsto provide post-tensionforcestothe slab.Typically,thesesteelstrands have a tensile strength \boldsymbol{\mathfrak{o}}\mathfrak{f}270,000 psi (1,860 MPa),are about 1/2" (12 mm) in diameter and are stressed to approximately 33,000 pounds (15,000 kg).

Fig. 2.21—Post Tensioned Concrete Slab —Photo Courtesy of Suncoust Post Tensioning Company.

Figure 2.23- Post-TensionedConcreteSlabTendonAnchorAnchorsecures post-tensioning cables running throughthe concrete slab.Photo Courtesyof Precision-Hayes International. 13

Reinforcing wire tendons are sull pre-manufacturedataplant, based onpecificrequirements, nddelivered tothe jobsit,redy to install.These tendons are laid out in forms in accordance with installationdrawingsthat indicatehowtheyarespaced,whattheir profileheight shouldbe,and where theywillbe stressed.Afferth concrete is poured and has reached required strength (up to 5,000 psi [34.5 MPa]) the tendons are stressed and anchored.These tendons, like rubber bands, want treturn to their originallengthbt are prevented from doing so by the anchorages.

The fact that the tendons are kept inapermanently stressed state causes aforce incompressionto act onthe concrete.The compression that results from the post-tensioning counteracts the tensile forces created by subsequent loading (machinery, people, equipment, flooring, etc...).14

PRE-TENSIONED (PRE-CAST) CONCRETE SLABS

While pre-tensioning is similrtopost-tensioning inthefact tht steeltendonsareexeringstresses onto concretetoincreasetensile strenth, tmhdf isdiffepsenio the steeltendons are stressed afterthe concrete hardens; in pre-tensioning,thesteelendonsarestrssed 70-80% of their ultimate strength priorto the concretebeing placed orpoured into the molds (in the case of pre-cast concrete) around the tendons. Once theconcrete reachestherequiredstrength,thestretching forces are relased.Asthesteereactsto rturntoits original ngth the tensile stresses aretranslated intoacompressive stress in the concrete.15

Pre-tension concrete members must be poured ata production facility and shipped to the job site individully. Each member is then installedas required and supported bycolumns,beams orother structural member.

Pre-castconcreteplankingisanotherformofpre-tensionedconcrete. The pre-cast concrete planks aretensioned priortothe concrete being poured.The concrete planks are thenslipped together nd mortared in place Typically {\mathfrak{a}}2^{\mathfrak{n}} (50 mm) thick concrete topping slab is required to create amonolithic concrete slab thatis suitable toreceiveceramic til,paverorothersuitableflooring finish.

Advantagesofpre-stressedconcrete slabsisshallowerdepthforthe same defectionrating asa thickerslaband greatershearstrengths than plain reinforced slabs of the same depth.

Figure 2.24 Pre-Cast Concrete Planks.Planks rest and are suppored by aflange attached tothesteelgirders.Theplanks arehoisted intoplacebyacraneandmortared to thebeamsand to eachother.Photocouresyof CounryMaterials Corporation.6

STEELFRAME(DECK) CONCRETESLABS

Toachievedesired tensilestrengthinpre-tensionandpost-tension slabs,tendons are required thathave stresses applied to them.ln steel frame (deck) construction,the steeldeck and additional mild steelreinforcing willprovidethe tensilestrengthrequired for the concrete slab.Post-tensioning istypicallynot necessary. Modenprofildstelpnheng,eifcllydsignedft purpose,acts as both permanent formwork during concreting and tensionreinforcement after the concretehashardened.Shear connections are mechanical fasteners used to develop composite action betweenthe steel beams and the concrete and maintain solid structural integrity.Atthis finalstage the composite slabconsists ofa profild steelsheet and anupperconcrete topping whichare interconnected in suchamannerthat horizontal shearforcescanbe resisted at thesteel-concrete interface.7

Composite floor construction has certain advantages overtypical concrete construction:

1. Itis used invery tl buildings
2. Itis ighweight ond strong
3.Itis prefabricated, soitassembles quickly

Figure 2.25－Showing placementofshearconnections nd edge detail

Figure2.26Concretepouroversuspendedcompositesteepanfloorconstruction.

TILEINSTALLATIONOVERSUSPENDED CONCRETE SLABS

The TCNA handbook for ceramic tle installtions recommends method F-lllfor installation overasuspended concrete slab,or, for installations where anunbonded mud bed is impractical,follow TCNA handbook for ceramic tile installations method F-122 which requiresananti-fractureorwaterproofing/anti-fracturemembrane. Pleasereference www.laticrete.com/ag forfurtherinformationon the LATICRETE recommended installtion methods (ES-F111 and ES-F122) for the above mentioned TCNA handbook for ceramic tile installations guidelines.

2.7 Steel Coolers and Freezers

It is common to find steelcoolers and freezers inindustrial applications.There aresome important guidelines to follow when steelormetalsubstrates arescheduled toreceive tilefinishes.

TEMPERATURES

Temperature isone of thebigest factors toconsider wheninstaling tile inacoolerorfreezer.Instlltionmaterialshaveworking temperatures that must be adhered to for proper curing of the setting materials and grouts. Installing tile overasteel substrate that is colder than the recommended temperatures will prevent the settingmaterialsandgrouts fromcuring,or,creverlengthy period of time.This can dramaticlly affect the overall hardness, bond strength,compressive strength,and long-term performance of the mortar and grout.Thebestalternative istomake sure that the cooler or freezer is turned off and allowed to warm to ambient temperatures.The surface that istoreceive tile should be between 60°\mathsf{F} (16°0) and 90°\mathsf{F} (32°0) for epoxy adhesives (e.g. LATAPOXY 300 Adhesive) and epoxy grout(e.g.SPECTRALOCK 2000 IG), and between 40°\mathsf{F} (4°0) and 90° (32°\complement) for cement-based setting materials (e.g.3701Fortified Mortar Bed; or,226ThickBedMortargauged with3701MortarAdmix,or 257 TITANIUM"" or MULTIMAX" Lite and grouts (PERMACOLOR"" Select Grout). For installtions requiring a waterprofing (e.. 9235Waterproofing Membrane or HYDRO BAN)or antifracture membrane(e.g.Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane) the temperature should bebetween 45°\mathsf{F} (7°0) and 90°\mathsf{F} (32°0)

The temperature depending on the product that it used must remain within the prescribed range fora minimum of 24 hours affer installation. Rapid seting materials will speed up the curing process before grouting.Once theflrisgrouted,allowfora24hourr longer cure period.

CONCRETEORMORTARBEDSUBSTRATES

Once the mortarbed (e.g.3701Fortified Mortar Bed; or, 226 Thick Bed Mortarmixed with 3701MortarAdmix)hardens and is cured properly,most waterproofing membranes canbeinstalld directly over the mortar bed.Follow the membrane (e.g. 9235 Waterproofing Membrane or HYDRO BAN) installation instructions for propercure time of themortarbed priorto application of the membrane.When using anepoxyseting material orotherpoxy membrane, fullcure of the mortar bed is required.

The metal orsteelsubstratemustbe rigid enoughtowithstand the weight of the mortarbed,any membranes,setting materials,il and grout.A 2" (50mm) thick mortarbed weighs roughly 24 Ibs perff2 (95 kg per \mathsf{m}^{2}) ：

STEELORMETALSUBSTRATES

There are twomethods for the installation of tile oversteelor metal substrates. The preferred method would be to tack weld or mechanically fasten 3.4\# diamond metal lath complying with the current revision of ANSIA108.1(3.3 Requirements for lathing and portland cement plastering),ANSIA108.02 (3.6 Metal lath),and A108.1A (1.0-1.2, 1.4 and 5.1).

Next,apply3701Fortified MortarBed;or,226ThickBed Mortar gauged with 3701Mortar Admix to float and fll in the wire lath.Float surface of scratch/leveling coat plumb,true and allow mortar to set until firm. Once the mortar bed is firm and dry the installtion of the membrane (e.g. 9235 Waterproofing Membrane HYDRO BANorBlue92Anti-Fracture Membrane),ifspecified can commence. Tile can be installed directly to the membrane using 257 TITANIUM"" orMULTIMAX" Lite.Grout using SPECTRALOCK 2000 IG and use LATICRETE Latasil for any movement or isolation joints.

Analternativemethod tosettileoverasteelormetalsubstrateis as follows:

1.Make sure the steelormetal substrate iscleaned thoroughly meets deflection ratings and cansupport the weight of the installtion.Wash steeormetal with astrong detergent to ensure that all manufacturing oils are removed. Rinse completelyand allow the steel ormetal to air dry. If possible scuffupthesurface toreceive tile withsand paper oremery cloth and thenre-wash the surface, rinse completely and allow to gir dr.

Once the surface is dry you may set the tileusing anpoxy adhesive (LATAPOXY? 300 Epoxy Adhesive).

Grout using SPECTRALOCK 2000 IG.Use Latasilm for movement and isolation joints.

2.8 References

1. American National Standard Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Tile. Tile Council of North America, Inc.Anderson, SC, ANSI A108.01.
2. TCNA Handbook for Ceramic TleInstallaion. Tile Council of North America, Inc.Anderson, SC.
3. TCNA Handbook for CeramicTil Instllation. Tile Council of North America, Inc. Anderson, SC.
4.American National Standard Specifications for Installation of Ceramic Til TileCounilof NrthAmerica, IncAnderon,C ANSI A 108.02.
5. The Basics of Concrete: Concrete 101 - The Basics.Retrieved November5,2003,from www.epoxysolutions.com
6.Cement and ConreteBasics.RetrievedMarch12,2007,fm www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics concretebasics.sp
7. PRM Concrete Technical Info.Rerieved November 11, 2003, from www.prmconcrete.com/tech.hm.
8.What, Why and How?:Vapor Retarders Under Slabs On Grade. Retrieved on September 20, 2007,from www.prmconcrete.com/cip/CIP29p.pdf
9.Guide forConcrete Slabs that ReceiveMoistureSensive Flooring Materials — ACI 302.2R-06.American Concrete Insitute. Farmington Hills, MI, 2006.
10. Donnell, G.Moisture VaporIntrusion Into Bulding Envelpes From or Through Concrete Slabs.Hemet, CA:George Donnell Testing and Inspections.
11.Design of Slabs that Receive Moisture - SensitiveFloor Coverings,byBruceA.Suprenant Concrete Intl.March 2003
12.An EngineersGuide to:Economical Concrete FloorSystems (n.d.).Retrieved September4, 2007,from www.cement.org/bookstore/profile.asp?id=9354
13. Precision-Hayes International.Retrieved October6, 2019,from htps://precision-hayes.com/sl one time use.php
14.What Is Post-Tensioning? (2003).Retrieved August 27,2007, https://www.post-tensioning.org/
15. Cement and Concrete Basics - Pre-stressed Concrete (n.d.). Retrieved August 23, 2007from, www.cement.org/basics/concreteproductsprestressed.sp
16.Country Materials Corporation.Retrieved December 20,2019 from https://www.countymaterils.com/en/products/ hollowcor-roof-and-flor-systems
17. Lecture 10.1: Composite Construction － General (n.d.) Retrieved August24,2007,fromwww.kuleuven. ac.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg10/10100. htm#SEC1
18.Unbonded Mortar Bed Installation Diagram. Retrieved October6,2019,from http://imiweb.org/06-130-0202-floor-ilethinse-onconcrete-or-cured-mortar-bed/

Section 3: Types of Wall Construction

3.1 Structural Considerations

As inSection2withfloorapplications,the same criteriaforsurface and structural considerations applies fo wallapplications.Basically, the wall mustbe structurallysound, dimensionally stable,me th maximum allowable standard for deflection of L/360 for finishes under totntiatdldsandbefre frmaybond-breking or bond-inhibiting substances. (Please refer to Section 2.2 for more information on structural considerations and live and dead loads.)

3.2 Wall Types

CONCRETEWALLTYPES

One of the most common substrate types that willbe found in industrial applications is concrete.This section will examine the variousconcreteconstructiontypesthat canbe encountered and their common characteristics.

Tilt-Up Concrete

Tilt-upand tilt-wallaretwotermsusedtodescribe the same process. Foratil-ucreebilding, thewallsarretdbyassig forms and pouring large slabs of concretecalled panels directlyat the job site.The concrete panels are thentilted up intoposition around thebuilding's slab to form the walls.Because the concrete tiltiwallforms areassembledand poureddirectlyat the jobsiteno transportation of panels is required.A major benefit of this technique is that thesize of the panels is only limited by the needs of the building and the strength of the concrete panels themselves.

Tilt-up constructionpanels cansometimes be extremelywide and/or tll.Tiltup concretepanelshavebeenas largeas69(21m)cross and almost 96' (30 m)high. Thus,architects and ilt-up concrete contractorshavegret dealofflexibilty inplanning nd cretig their buildings.

A tilt-up construction projectbegins with job site preparation and pouring the slab(s). During this phase of the project, workers install footings around the slab in preparation for the panels. The crew then assembles the panel forms on the slab.Normally, the form is created with wooden pieces that are joined together. The forms act like amold for the cement panels.They provide the panel's exact shape and size, doorways and window openings, and ensure the panels meet designspecifications and fit together properly.Next, workers tie in the steel gridof reinforcing bars into the form.Inserts and lift hoks are embedded forlffing the panelsand thenattaching them to the footings, the roof, and to each other.

Once the concrete panels have hardened and the forms have been removed, the crew connects the first panel toacrane withcables that hook into the insers.Workers helpto guide the concrete panel into positionand thecranesets it intoplace.Anexperienced crew can erect as many as 30 panels ina single day.

Figure3.1Tilt-UpConcretePanels erected intoplace

Pre-Cast Concrete

The pre-cast concrete building process is similr to flt-upconstruction, but it addressesthechallenges presentedbyweather.Forprecast concretebuildings,workcrews donotsetupformsatthejobsite to create thepanels.Instead,workers cast concretepanels at large manufacturing facility.Because the pre-cast concrete formsare poured indoors,this activity cantake place regardless of the weather conditions.Aftercuring,thepre-castconcrete panelsaretrucked to the jobsite.From this point, pre-cast concrete buildings are assembled in much the same manner astiltwall buildings

The fact that precast concrete wall are formed atmafacturing facilityreolvestheweatherissuebtpresentsdifferent limitation not found in tilt-up construction.Because the panels must be transpored,sometimesoverlong distances,thisplacessubstantil limitation onhow wide or tall each panel can be.It would be impossibleto loadpre-castpanelsthat were 60^{\prime} (20 m) wide or 90' (30 m) long onto trucks and transport them any distance.For apre-cast constructionproject,the panels must be smallerand more manageable to allow trucks to haul them over the road to their final destination.This places certain design restrictions onarchitects and limits the applications where pre-cast construction can be used.

Cast-in-Place Concrete

Cast-in-place concrete isacommon substrate forthe direct adhesion of file.Casti-place concrete is poured into forms (sprayed with form release agents)wheresteel reinforcing has previouslybeen placed.The conditionofverticallyformed concrete is extremely variable,duetothenumerouspotentialdefectsthatcanoccurwith mix design, dditives,forming,placement and curing.There mayb concerns with poured-in-place concrete inrelationto the long-term performance of a industrial finishes.

Some of these concerns include:

Laitance

As noted in Section 2.3,laitance isa thinlayer of weakened portland cement fines thathave migrated to the surface of the concrete.This conditionisespeciallyprevalent inverticallyformed concretewhereexcesswaermigratesbygravity,aidedbyh vibrationof concrete and pressuretothe surfaceagainstthewall form.The excess water gets trapped by theformwhere itstays until the form is removed. Once the forms are removed and the waterhashadachance to evaporate,itleaves behind athinlayerof what appears obeahard concrete surface,but inrealityis weakened due to the high water to cement ratioat the surface. Laitance hasaverylowtensile strength,and therefore the adhesion of tile willbe limited by the low strength of the laitance. Laitance should be removed from the concrete surface prior to the installation of finishes.

Honeycombing

Honeycombing isa condition where concrete is not properly packed orconsolidatedbyvibrationduring thepour,wheresteel reinforcement istoo close to the form,where there is internal interference withthe flowof concrete during the consolidation procedure,or where there is poor mix design.These conditions can resultinvoids inthe surface orcore of theconcrete.Surface honeycombing defects must be properly prepared and patched using abonding agent to ensure proper adhesion tothe concrete priorto installation of the finish material.

Unintended Cold Joints

Inverticalwalls,cold jointsareusuallyunintended,and canresult in a weakened plane.This weakened plane is subject to random shrinkage cracking which could transfer to the surface of the finishes.These conditions usuallyresultfromdelays orequipment breakdowns and canbe prevented by proper coordination of concrete delivery and proper maintenance and use of installaion equipment.

Concrete Forms

Smooth formwork for concrete walls can result in a surface that is too smooth for direct adhesion of industrial finishes.A smooth surface provides litleornomechanicalkeyfor the initial grab required whenapplying wet adhesives orcoatings.These surfaces do not typicallyfacilitate absorption of cement paste and subsequent mechanical locking provided by the growth of cement crystals into the pores of the substrate.Mechanicallygrinding or vertical scarificationcanbe used toachieve abetter concrete surface to accept a direct adhered industrial finish installation.Epoxy-based tile installation materials (e.g.LATAPOXY? 300 Adhesive or LATAPOXY 210 Adhesive) do not rely on open pore structure to achieve exceptional bond and may be abetter choice for this concrete finish.

Form Release Agents

There areawidevarietyof formrelease agentsonthemarket today. These products range from used motor oil or dieselfuel to sophisticated water-based products.Anytypeof oilbased orother potential bond breaking contaminant must be removed prior to the direct adhesion of tile and cotings.

Curing Compounds

The variety of materials and the unique characteristics of proprietary formulations require that you follow the same recommendations above for form release agents.

Concrete Additives

There are numerous concrete additives,which,depending on the properties they impart to the concrete,could be detrimentalto the adhesion of finishesto the concrete wall.Forexample,super plasticizers are atype of concrete additive that allows extremelylow water-fo-cement ratios and resultant high strength,without sacrificing workability of the concrete.This type of additive can induce bleed water,and facilitate theformation of laitance.Similarly, additivesthat react withfree minerals inthe concrete producean extremely dense and wateresistant pore structure andmaybe detrimental to good adhesivebond.It is therefore imperative to communicate to the concrete subcontractor,and to write into the concretesecification,whichareasof thconcretearescheduledo industrial finishes or coatings. This communication can also help ensure that theconcreteisfully compatiblewiththe direct bond method of ceramictile installation using alatex-fortified porland cement-based or epoxy adhesive.

3.3 Concrete Curing

The installtionof ceramictile and industrial coatingsover concrete can onlybegin once theconcretereaches satisfactory cure.As concrete cures,it losesmoisture and shrinks.A common misconceptionisthatconcretecurescompletelyandall concrete shrinkage takes places within 28 days of placement. This is simply not true.Thicksections of concrete could take over2yearstoreach the point of ultimate cure.28 days at 70°\mathsf{F} (21°0 is the period of time it takes for concrete to reach itsfull designstrength.At that point,concretewillhavereacheditsdesigned tensilestrength,nd canbetter resist the effects of shrinkage and stress concentration.

Depending on the humidity and exposure to moisture in the fist 28 days, there maybe verylitle shrinkage that occurs within that period.So while more flexible adhesives, like latex porland cement adhesive mortars can accommodate the shrinkage and stressthat may occur inconcreteless than 28 daysold,itis recommended to wait a minimum of 30-45 days to reduce the probability of concentrated stress ontheadhesive interface or coating.Some building regulations may require longer waiting periods (up to 6 months).After thisperiod, resistance to concentrated stressis providedbythe tensilestrength gain of the concrete,and its ability to shrink as a composite assembly. The effectof remaining shrinkage is significantly reduced byits distribution over time and accommodatedby the use of lowmodulus of elstity or flexible adhesives.

3.4 Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU)

Concrete masonry units(CMU)are suitable as a substrate foran industrial ile applicationWhenstandardggregateanddensity CMU is built to plumb and levelness tolerances (including the mortar joints),nofurtherpreparationisneeded except forfinalwater cleaning,ulessthereisspecificeed orpecificationforan antifracture(e.g.Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane)or waterproofing membrane (e.g. HYDRO BAN) which typically are installed directly to the CMU (following the manufacturer's installation instructions).

Both standard and lighweightaggregate concrete masonry units presentseverlothermaterial pecificoncerns.ypicall,MUwll are fairlyporous.herefore,care mustbe takenfoprevent possible pre-mature absorptionof moisture (required forproperhydrationof latex porland cement adhesive mortars) into the CMU.The CMU wallshould be wiped downwithadamp sponge priorto the application of any membrane oradhesive mortar. This willincrease the working time of the membrane or adhesive mortar and also provide a final leaning of the wall.

In some cases,where testpanelsmayindicate pooradhesionat the CMU/adhesive interface,it is recommended to skim coat the CMU (1/8" {3mm} maximum thickness) with a latex porland cement mortar(e.g.257TITANIUM" or MULTIMAX" Lite)to seal the rough surface texture of the CMU.With the properlatexporland cement mortar, the thin skim coat willharden quickly without risk of moisture suction.Anotherconcernisthecohesionortensilestrength of the CMU material which may be lessthan the tensile bond strength of the adhesives; thisismore of aconcern with lightweight aggregate or cellular CMU.

CellrogasbetonCMu(alscommonly knowasyong or Aerated Autoclaved Concrete [AAC]) is manufactured with materials that react with portland cement to create and entrain air spaces and reduce weight and density.This type of block typically does nothave good tensile and shearstrength (<7kg/\mathsf{cm}^{2}) . Due to the low shear strength,slightshinkgeof conventioncment mora my tear the suface and result indelamination.Smilarly,the lowdensity (40-50 Ibs /f3 [500-600\kg/m^{3}]. of this material results in a coefficient of thermal expansion which is significantly different from typical cladding materials which may cause concern about diferential movement. The porous structure of this material also requires careful considerationto compensate forsuction of hydration moisture from cement-based adhesives.Most of the celular or gas beton CMU block manufacturers require the use of alatex portland cement-based skim coat prior to the installationof the tile adhesive mortar, cement-based render or membrane.

3.5Framed Wall Substrates

CEMENTITIOUSBACKERUNITS(CBU)OVERFRAMING

There areawide variety of productformulations inthis category of substrates,suchas pure porland cement, cement-fiber, and calcim silicateboards.hisboard tyeisdesigned foruse onfloors, walls and ceilings in wet or dry areas and is applied directly to wood or metal framing.Ceramic tile and industrialcoatings canbe bonded to it with dryset,latex/polymer modified porland cement morar, or epoxy adhesive by following the backer board manufacturer's instructions.

Itis important to note that many of the otherboard types, including coated glassmat water-resistant gypsumbackerboard,fibercement underlayments,fiber-reinforced water-resistantgypsumbackerboard and cementitious coated foam boards followmany of the same industryrecognized installationinstructions.However, the specific board manufacturer's installation instructions willtake precedence over the generalinstalltioninstrctions.Thceraictil indsty supplies thefollowing installtion instructionsfor CBU applications.

1. Systems, including the framing system and panels, over which tile willbe installed shallbe inconfomance with the Intenational Building Code (IBC) for commercial and industrial applications, or applicable building codes. The project design should include the intended use andnecessaryallowances fortheexpected live load, concentrated lod,impact load and dead lod including the weight of the finish and installation materials

2. Al CBU must comply with American National Standards Institute Inc.(ANSI) ANSI A118.9 (Standards for Test Methods and Specifications for Cementitious Backer Units)and ASTM C1325 (StandardSpecificationforNon-AsbestosFiber-MatReinforced Cement Interior Substrate Sheets). CBU installation must comply with ANSI A108.11 (Interior Installation of Cementitious Backer Units).

3. Provide expansion movement/expansion joints for ceramic tile, stone and thin brick installtionsasperthecurrentTNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation - EJ171.

4.Fasten the CBU with 7/8" (22 mm) minimum length, non-rusting,selfimbedded screwsforwood studs.Fastenthe boards every 6" (150 mm) at the edges and every 8" (200 mm) in the field. Tape lltheboard joints with the alkali-resistant 2" (50 mm) wide reinforcing mesh (provided by the CBU manufacturer) embedded in the same mortarused to install the ceramic tile, stone or thin brick.

5.To prevent water leakage through the walls, especially inhigh waterexpure ares applywaterprofing membrae .g. HYDRO BAN)directly on the CBU.Please refer to membrane manufacturer's writteninstallationinstructions.Someapplications may require an additional vaporbarrier installed behind the CBU.

6.Beforeapplying the tile itisessential that the CBU be wiped down withadamp sponge to remove dust and to increase working/djustabity time overhot, dry surfaces.This willensure that the thin-set orlarge and heavy tile adhesive mortar (e.g.257 TITANIUMm or MULTIMAX" Lite) has an opportunity to hydrate properly without the CU absorbing the water. Appl the mortar oradhesive, using the flat side of the trowel towork the material into good contact with the CBU.Then comb on additionalmaterial withthenotched sideof the trowel.Spread only as much material as can be tiled in 15—20 minutes. Use the correct size notched trowel and“back butter”the tiles, if

necessary,to achieve the correct coverage.It is recommended to pull tiles occasionally to ensure propercoverage isbeing achieved Once the thin-set mortar orpoxy adhesive has cured for the appropriate amount of time,grouting can take place.

COATEDGLASSMATWATER-RESISTANTGYPSUM BACKERBOARD

Coated glass mat water-resistant gypsumbackerboard should conform to ASTM C1178(Standard Specification for Coated Glass Mat Water-Resistant Gypsum Backing Panel) and be suitable for useas ceramic fl backer bord. Thistypeof board should only berecommended foruse onwalls and ceilings over wood ormetal framing for industrial applications. Ceramic tile can be bonded toα coated glass mat water-resistant gypsum backerboard with latex/ polymer modified porland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive by following thebackerboard manufacturer's instructions.

FIBERCEMENTUNDERLAYMENT

A dispersed fiber-reinforcedcementbackerand underlayment designed foruse on walls and ceilings in industrial applications. This board istypically applied directlyto wood or metal framing. Ceramic tile can be bonded to it with latex/polymermodified porland cementmortar oranepoxy adhesive byfollowing the backerboard manufacturer's installationinstructions.General interior installation and material specifications are contained in ANSIA108.11(Interior Installation of Cementitious Backer Units)and ASTM C1288 (Standard Specification forDiscrete Non-Asbestos Fiber-Cement Interior Substrate Sheets).

FIBER-REINFORCEDWATER-RESISTANTGYPSUM BACKERBOARD

Fiber-Reinforced Water-ResistantGypsumBackerBoard should conform toASTM C1278 (Standard Specification for FiberReinforced Gypsum Panel). This board is typically used on walls and ceilings, and is applied directly to wood or metal framing inindustrial applications. Ceramic tile is adhered to this board with latex/ polymer modified porland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesiveby following the backerboard manufacturer's recommendations.

CEMENTITIOUS-COATEDFOAMBOARD

Cementitious-coated foam board is awaterproof backerboard constructed from extruded polystyrene and coated with a cementitious coating which isdesigned as asubstrate forceramic tile walls inwet and dry areasand is applied directly to wood or metal framing. Ceramictile canbe adhered with a latexpolymer modified porland cement mortar or an epoxyadhesive.Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for installtion instructions.

WATERPROOFCOATEDLIGHTWEIGHTFOAMBACKERBOARD

Waterproof coated ightweight foambacker board (e.g.HYDRO BAN? BOARD) is a waterproof backer board constructed from extruded polystyrene and coated with waterproofing membrane which is designedasasubstrate forceramic tile walls inwet and dry areas and is applied directly to wood or metal framing. Ceramic tile can be adhered with a latex/polymer modied porland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive.Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for installtion instructions.

3.6 Substrate Condition and Preparation EVALUATIONOFSUBSTRATECONDITION

As previously mentioned in Section 2.3,thefirst step inany installtion is the evaluationof jobsiteconditions.The extent of substrate preparation wilnotbe known until the surface is examined forcompliance with industry standards forsubstrate tolerances, plumbness, surface defects and substrate contaminates.

Inrelationto theoverllcostof the installtion,preparationof the substrate is neithr costly nor tmeconsuming.However, prper preparation is one of the most important steps that leads toa Successful, long term installation and helps prevent "call backs".

ADHESIVECOMPATIBILITY

As mentioned inSection 2.3,adhesive and coating compatibity plays an important role in determining adhesion between the substrate and the finishes being installed.Both the substrate and the finishes must be compatible with the type of dhesive orcoating being used and recommended for use in the environment in which it will be installed The ability of asubstrate tobewetted outbyan adhesive or coating is essential to good adhesion and important in determining the performance of the adhesive or coating in bonding to the substrate. The highest strength adhesives and the most careful application to thebest wall will not overcomea dirty or contaminated substrate.

SITEVISITAND CONFERENCE

Prior to commencing any work, the contractor shall inspect surfaces toreceive finsihes and shall notify the architect, general contrto or other designated authorityinwriting of any visually obvious defects or conditions that will prevent asatisfactory installation. Installtionwork shall not proceeduntil satisfactory conditions are provided. Commencing installation of work deems acceptance of substrate conditions.

SUBSTRATEPREPARATION

Wllsubstratestoreceivefisheswilawysbeexposedtvaring degrees of airborne contamination,exposure toother trades and site-applied products. This can include, but is not limited to, formrelsegentselr,rnythepotenl bond-inhibiting materils.

Thereforeyfoilyrtptetilbnbren contaminant must be removed prior to the installation of tile or coatings on concrete wallsThese types of contaminants may require mechanical scarification,grinding,shot-blasting orthermethodf mechanical removal.

At timesahighpressurewaterwashcanbeused toleanconcrete and concrete masonry unit walls. The high pressure water wash (approximately 3,000 psi \{20.7M\P_{0}\}, can very easily remove a thin layerof contaminated concrete or masonry. Once the walls have been thoroughly cleaned further valuation isnecessary.

Figure 3.2HighPressureWater Washing.

CRACKS

Plastic and Shrinkage Cracks

Freshlyplaced concreteundergoesatemperaturerisefromtheheat generated by cement hydration, resulting in an increase involume. As the concrete coolstothe surrounding temperature,it contracts and is susceptible to what is termed "“plastic shrinkage"cracking dueto thelwtnsile strengthwithinthefistseveralhorsord after the concrete is placed.Plasticshrinkage canbe controlledby reductionofaggregatetemperature,cementcontent,sizeofpours/ members, deferring concreting o cooler emperatures damp cring and the early removal of forms.

Concrete also undergoesshrinkageasit driesout,and can crack from buildup of tensile stresses.Rapid evaporation of moisture resultsinshrinkageatanearlystage wheretheconcretedoesnot have adequate tensile strength to resist contraction.Concrete is most susceptible to drying shrinkage cracks within the first 28 days of placement.After 28days concrete typicallydevelops adequate tensile strengthtoresistamore evenlydistributed andlessrapid rate of shrinkage.It isforthisreasonthat itisrecommended to wait 3045daysbefore aplicationof adhesivemortars or coatings. Just like floors prior to the installationof ceramictile,tret ny shrinkage cracks with an ant-fracture membrane (e.g. Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane)to prevent the transmission of cracks throughthe finish surface.Forthe installtion of other coatings over crackedsubstrates,consult therespective productdatasheetonhow to properly treat or repair cracks prior to their installation.

Structural Cracks

Cracks that are greater than an 1/8" (3 mm) in width, are displaced ornot inplane,andoccur throughout the crosssectionof concrete wall orstructural member, are anindicationofastructural defect andmust be corrected before the ile orcoting isadhered to the wll Structural cracking onvertical aplications canbe repaired using lowviscosity epoxy ormethacrylate pressure injection methods. Once the cracks are stabilied and properly repaired, the installation processcan commence.

Cracks that are an 1/8" orless (3 mm) in width are typically non-structuralshrinkage cracks.Whilethesetypesof cracks do not requirestructuralcorrectionpriortotheinstalltionofceramictileor paver finishes,theyrequire isolationbymeansofa crack isolation membrane (e.g.Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane). The crack isolation membrane is applied to the crack with a 6" (150 mm) wide treatment (3" {75 mm} applied on either side of the crack). Next,another layer of the crack isolationmembrane treatment that isa lest three timesthe width of the tile, isalid ove th previous layer (Formore information onthis method,please refer to LATICRETE ES-125 at www.laticrete.com/ag). This treatment ensures that the tile willsit directly on the membrane and wil provide the full capabilities of the crack isolation membrane.An alternative method treatsthe entireverticalsubstrate withthe crack isolationmembrane tohelp prevent existing cracks and anyfuture non-structural cracks from telegraphing through to the tile surface.

PLUMB AND LEVEL

Itis imperativto evltehow plbwallisbefore appling tile.The TCNA Handbook for ceramic tile installtions stipulates maximum variation in the substrate shall not exceed 1/4" in 10' (6 mm in 3 m) or 1/16" in 1' (1.5 mm in 300 mm) from the required plane formost tile installations.At times,thedesign professional may specify a more stringent tolerance of 1/8" in 10 (3 mm in 3 m). This is especially true when installing large format tile or gauged porcelintl,panels orslabs.If this variationisnt achieved, alveling coat or mortarbed maybe necessary.For industrialaplications,concreteconcretemasonryunits nd cement backerunits oversteelframing aregenerallytheverticalsubstrates most frequently used.Attimes,the substrate mayrequire aminor skim coating of latex/polymer-fortied patching or skimming morar (e.g. NXT Patch or Skim) to fix any minor irregularities, all the way up toafull render application that includes a scratch and brown coat (e.g.3701Fortified Mortar Bed); in order to make the walls plumb and true.

Although some wallsmay be plumb, they may notnecessarly be level. Tile installations canovercomeawallthat is not perfectly level,howevr,therecouldbeconsequncestoeingtln wllthat isnotflat, the most seriousbeing inadequate bond.

Tiles also have certain tolerances when it comes to their manufacturing process.Forexample,the greaterthe tolerancefor tile thickness, thegreater thechances are that the tile wall will appear wavy and irregular in profile.The quality of the tile can also play an important role in the final appearance of the finish.

Afterthewllshave beenbrought into compliance with industry substrate tolerance standards, the installtion of ile can commence. Prior to installing tile on walls, it is important to clean the wall surface just prior to installing tile so thatdust and debris will not affect the bond of the tile installation.

Specialty and large and heavy tile adhesive mortars (e.g.MULTIMAX" Lite) can alleviate smallvariations in the wal and tiletolerances withouttheneedofaleveling coat orthick mortarbed.Follow the manufacturer's recommendation of thickness with these special setting materials.

Industrial walls that employ the epoxy spot bonding method (e.g. LATAPOXY? 310 Stone Adhesive.See Details ES-W260 and ES W215 insection10 formore information.）generally tolerate greater deviations froma flat plane.Maximum deviation is afunction of the recommended thickness and working properties of the adhesives such as sag resistance.Follow the manufacturer's installation instructions when utilizing the epxy spot bond method.

SURFACEANDAMBIENTTEMPERATURE

During the placement of concrete and installtion of othersubstrate types, cold orhot temperaturesmaycause numeroussurface or internalefects, including shrinkage racking,weaksufacee of hardened concrete caused by premature evaporation,or frost damage.Prior to curing, extreme temperatures of both the ambient air and surface of the substrate willalsoaffect the normal properties of adhesive mortars and coatings.

Warmerambient airand surface temperaturewil acceleratethe setting of cement and epoxy adhesives and coatings.Coolerambient air wilrequire α longer curing period.

The two general rules are;

1. For every 18°\mathsf{F} (10°0) below 70°\mathsf{F} (21°0 cement-based and epoxy-based materialswill take twice as long to cure 2. For every 18°\mathsf{F} (10°0) above 70°\mathsf{F} (21°0 cement-based and epoxy-based materials will take half as long to cure

Washing anddampening wallsas describedpreviously,will not only help to remove any lose contaminants offthe wall,but wil also serve to lowersurfacetemperatures inwarmerclimates,and lower the absorptionrate of the substrate.It isimportant tofollow the manufacturer's recommendations for temperature ranges foral installation materials.

3.7 References

1Construction Photograhs.com.Retrieved October3,2007from www.filtupnews.com 2 TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation. Tile Council of North America, Inc. Anderson, SC.

Section 4: Comparison of Alternate Types of Industrial Flooring

Thissectionwill providegeneral informationonalternate systems (e.g.epoxycoatings,erzzostamped concret,polshdconcrte metal wallpanel cladding and more) which can be used in industridl applications.It is imporant tonote that althoughtile/stone flooring systems have their place inindustriol installations, there are many locations within these institutions in which they may not be suitable. These locations aretypicallythose areasthat demandaseamless floring that canoffer less penetrationsforbacteia togrow and ease of cleaning benefits. The Tile Council of North America (TCNA) has conducted an extensive life cycle cost analysis (Tile Is The Natural Choice:Environmental and Cost Evaluation)comparing ceramictile tootherfinishflooring tyes.SeeSectionllfordesign considerations when using ceramic tile/stone finishes in medical, educational and hospitality aplications.

4.1 Seamless Resinous Flooring Systems

Generally speaking, resinous floors canbedefined as“αfloor which is finished witharesinous coating that is used as the wearing surface"These resinous flring soltionsffesavarietyf unique designs andfinishesforanincrease esthetic vale while still offering increased chemical and abrasion resistance.Gone are the days inwhich epoxy isthe only choice to comlete aresinous fooring installDue toadvances intechnolgy, ndmode day science,there are many optionsthat canbe offered to th customerfor their resinous flooring installThese options consist ofepoxie,polyasariccementiousrethanes,MMAsMh Methacrylates), and others.Eachof these products bring unique qualities to the application and we willbriefing discuss each below.

General Information on Epoxy Coatings

Itisimportant tonote that epoxy flooring instlled within industrial installations are‘epoxy coatings'which are much different than epoxy painted sufaces.Forexample,warehouses, labs,hospitals automobile shops,car dealerships,loading docks,and many more applicationsuse epoxy coatings.One manufacturercandefine an epoxy flrby saying,"Muliple lyersof epoxy placed onafoor surface,regardessof thekindfpoxyresinsapplid,provided h the total thickness of allayersisaminimum of 2\mathsf{mm}^{\prime\prime} . This type of epoxy is considered anepoxy paint.Another manufacturer may callout forecific epoxymateriol ineificmerof lyer to a specificthickness Thisis considered an epoxy coatings which carry theirowndefinition.Forthe purposesof thisTechnicalDesign Manual and given theytype of use these floors will be installed in, we will be discussing thelatteroption, Eoxy Coatings.

Each epoxy coating material has its own unique characteristics that help to define exactly how these materials can and should be used. Apoor choice of epoxy coating,based ontheneedsof the application, can reult inrapid degradation of the epoxy.n importantnote,however, isthefact that therecanbevast difference in performance properties with industrial epoxy coatings vs.‘watered down'epoxies that are less expensive and performat decreased levels.These diluted epoxy coating materials do not performas wellas the more expensive industrial epoxy coating materials which are installed as recommended by the manufacturer. For example LATICRETEoffers some 100% high solids epoxies that areformulatedtohaveincreased chemicalresistance,resistanceo yellowing and UV damage, and slip resistance to name afew. Please see thepplicable product datasheetforadditional information on LATICRETE epoxy products

General Information on Polyaspartic Coatings

Polyasparticsarerelativelynewintheworld ofdecorative concrete coatings,only being introduced in the early1990s,but have been around indiffeentfomsinthecoting indstryformanyer. Polyaspartic coating evolvedfromaclass of material called polyurea, a durable fast drying material that has been used in many industrial applications asacorrosionresistant coating and repairmaterial. Polyureas have two primary problems: Very fast seting (5-10 sec); and poorresistance toU.Polyaspartis,specific classof polyureas,have overcome these dificulties while maintaining the same strength, flexibilityand chemical resistant properties.

LATICRETE now offes avariety of polyasparic products with the introduction of our SPARACOTE" Line.These polyaspartic products include SPARTACOTE FLEX SB that is used in environment that can handleastrong solvent smell during installation and wants arapid setting,fast drying system.Forareas that requires lowVOC andlow odor the SPARTCOTE FLEX PURE and SPARTACOTE FLEX XPL can be used.These products with the CLINICALPLUS" designation offers built in anti-microbial protection and also are lowVOC with little to no odor. All of these lowVOC/low odormaterialsallows for an appicationin existing areas that are occupied without having to shut down the entire business.For instance, in industrial installations, an installer coud section off aroom (be it anoperating room, classroomorhotel room) to install the coating while the daily operation commence just outside the door.Furthermore, a complete 3 coat systemcanbe installed inasingleday and returned tofull service the next day. Thisisbecause of the unique fast drying capabiliesof polyasparticotings,ypically1-3hoursbween coats. Thisisverydifferent from the standard epoxy coatings that could take8-16 hoursforeachcoattodryortheurethanes coatings that can take6-8hours between coats.Additional benefitsof polyasparticsare UVstabity, color/gloss retention,nohot-ire pickup,high chemical resistance, and high abrasion & impact resistance.Please see the applicable product datasheet for additional infomation on LATICRETE polyaspartic products

General Information on Urethane Cement Coatings Urethane Cement is basically a combination of a urethane based polymerbinder and cement based filler, alhough there canbe additional fillers added forperformance and aesthetic reasons. It is commonlyreferred toaspolymerconcrete.There aremanybenefit of using urethane cement butit is important to remember that this tye of flooring is geared to more industrial applications. Given this, desthetics isn't typically the focus when choosing this coating. This floring typeischosenbased onitphysical properties whichsetsit apart from the rest of the coatings. Urethane cement has exceptional thermal shock qualities.Areas that can experience drastic temperature changes inashor amount of time,like those common seen in commercial kitchen around fryers or in areas where hot water is poured onthe floor to clean,tendsto weaken other coatings and can lead them to crack ordelaminate over time. LATICRETE Urethane Cement products doesn'thave this issue

Additionally,urethane cementisn'taseffectedbymoistureinthe concrete like the other resinous products are.Polyaspartics and epoxies have concrete moisture restrictionslimited to3to5pounds of moisture per1000 square feet inα24 hour period if testing in accordance to ASTMF1869(calcium chloride test）-or-less than 75% of moisture when testing inaccordance to ASTMF2170 (Concrete probe test).Having a moisture limit of 12lbs of moisture per 1000 square feet ina 24 hour period Urethane cement canbe placed onthe concrete withoutadition prep.Urethane cement also have additional qualities of highabrasion and impact resistance.

4.2 Polished Concrete Floors

Polished concrete is justas the name implies; concrete whichis mechanically grinded, chemically hardened (densified), sealed, and then polished.This process producesa dense concrete which in most cases, inhbits water, oiland other continants frmpenetg the surface.Polished concrete does have its advantages when used within industrial facilities.FGSPERMASHINEpolished concrete system isagreat option forabeautiful, aesthetically- pleasing floor that isdrlendbilt tlt Reularmantece of the fri when using this system, doesnot require the use of harsh abrasives, solvents orwaxes.Areasthataresuitabletoreceivethistypeof flooring wouldbe the kitchen (if aplicable),loby, visiing rom, and other areas in which the flooring doesn't have to be completely sealed.

Polished Concrete Limitations

As inthecaseofanyfloorfinish,polishedconcreteisnotsuitable forllcations.Situations inwhich polished concrete will be exposed toacid based chemicals andaggressivecleaning regimens cancausetheconcretetobecomepitted,starttopowderoreven crack. One difficulty with this happening with any industril floor is the time required vs.time alloted to perform repairs. Concrete must be properlycuredpriortobeputback intoservice and insome locations time is very limited.It is also important to note that these flrs,alhoughbrasinesistant,alsreqirsregl maintenance.Most sealers used forpolished concrete are topical and are more likely to show wear in the high trafficareas causing the luster todull.This mean that arecoatof the sealer orαregular maintenance coat of wax will be necessary more offen.The process used to createapolished concrete flooreliminates theabilityto directlybond aresinous coating ortiledflooring systemto the concrete surface.Ifadifferent floorfinishissought inthe futureall sealers would havetoberemoved and theextremelyhard,dense polished cocreturface wod hveobe prfldbygring shot-blasting, or beadlasting

4.3 Carpet

Carpetisatextilefloorcovering consisting ofanupperlayerof fibers attached to a backing.The fibers are generally made from wool ora man-made fiber suchas polpropylene,and usually consist of twisted tuts which are oftenheat-treated to maintain theirstructure. Carpet iswidelyused inofficeareashallwaysand otherares typicallynot subjected to waterorvehicular traffic.Carpetis available in many colors and configurations and is an ideal product for use in areas which require sound control.

Carpet Limitations

Ofall the prodcts used tofinishfloors (ie.tle stone, teazz, hardwood,laminates, etc...) carpet has the shortest life.While tile orstone areexpectedtolast50years,carpethasanexpectedlife of 6 years,afterwhichthe carpt isusually relcedWhile cat typicallyhas the lowest cost toinstall of llof the finishes, i would have tobe replaced approximately 8times during the expected ife of file or stone. According to TCNA "TILE: The Natural Choice — Environmental and Cost Evaluation" carpet has 0.51.08 cost per year fo maintain, while tile ranges from 0.32\ t0\50.35$ per year.

The comfort of carpet is whataracts owners toit.Most carpets offerssoffand cushioned surface when walking atop of it and, when compared tootherflooring,iswarmerwithout theaddition of aradiant system.Hwever, capt shuld ntbeusedin areas subjected toliquids, chemical exposure,vehiculrtraffic, manufacturing, or other areas which would be difficult to clean, maintain, orwhere environmental considerations prohibit the use of carpet.

According to the American Lung Association“carpet can also have an impact your health. They may trap pollutants ike dust mites, pet dander lgensilellutondml srstiid dirt and dust. Some of the chemicals and glues used to make and installcarpets are made with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which emits odors and pollutants. New carper installation also has been associated with wheezing and coughing in babies in their first year of ife (https:/www.lung.org/our-ititives/helhy-air/ indoor/indoor-air-polltants/carpets.html

Section 5: Types of Tile for Industrial Applications

5.1 Selection of Industrial Application Tile Types

An industrialfloorapplicationcanbe exposed to some of the harshest and most extreme conditions of any system inabuiding. Ingenerl,anyf qury tlvers,linkrld brick,packing house tile and porcelain pavers are suitable for these applications.However,there is no standard formula or recommendationforthe selection of these tiletypes.Selection must be made by an assessment of the individual finish material's functional and aesthetic characteristics inrelationto the performance requirements.A discussion of the aesthetic merits of different finish materials is highly subjective and beyond the technical focus of this manual. This section willfocus primarily on the functinal criteria necessary to determine whether a finish material's physical characteristics satisfy the performance requirements of an industrial application's design and location.While every application can be unique, the following are criteria that can be used to determine general functional suitability of the finish materials:

SELECTIONCRITERIAFORFINISHMATERIAL

- Thermal Movement Compatibility With Adhesive and Substrate
- Chemical Resistance
-Thermal Movement and Shock Resistance
- Adhesive Compatibity
- Dimensional Stabity (Heatand Moisture Insensitivity, Moisture
Expansion)
- Dimension and Surface Quality/Tolerance
- Characterstics of Ceramic Tile
-Low Water Absorption Rate
-Frost Resistance (Where Required)
- High Breaking Strength
- Slip Resistant

Thermal Movement Compatibility

The tile's rate of expansion and contraction due to temperature changes must be relatively compatible with the tile adhesive mortar. Significantdifferences couldcause excessivestress intheadhesive interface and lead to delamination or bond failure (see Section 7). Minor differences inthermal compatibiltyare acceptable,nd the selectionoffleileahsiveplayscrical indistring minor differential movement.Accurate prediction of thermalbehavior is extremely complex, considering among other things, the amount and rate of temperature changes and the thermal gradients and lag that exists.Figure 5.1 shows typical rates of thermal movement of materials commonly used.

Chemical Resistance

The finish materials must have good chemical resistance to prevent deteriorationfrom not only chemicals that maybe used in cleaning and maintenance,but also alkali and acids associated with the manufacturing of products.

Thermal Shock Resistance

An industrial tile application can be exposed toa tremendous range and rateof change of temperatures.Thereisadifference between thermal shock and thermal movement.Thermal shock refers to the rate and range of temperature fluctuation within short periods of time. Thermal shock could be experienced by an industrial tile application during manufacturing processes (e.g.hot or cold liquids spiled ontoa floor orareas where liquid nitrogen is used)The tile and adhesive foran industrial applicationmustbe able to withstand any thermal shock.

Figure 5.2Resultof improper fileselection for the application.The use of semivitreous tile - 7% in absorption did not stand up to the demands of this installation. <br>Figure 5.3—Classification of ceramic tile by water absorption. (EN or ISO Standards).

Tilesmustbeabletoresist thermal shock,freeze-thaw,be chmicl resistant, dmensionally stable and resist moisture expansionfor most industrial applications.

Compatibility with Adhesive

The suitabity of adhesives for the proposed alicationmustbe evaluated taking into consideration the criteria listed in Section7— Selection of Adhesives.Partof that processis evaluating an adhesive's compatibilitywiththematerials composition, surface texture,and other physical characteristics.Polymers of some latex additives not intended forindustrial applications could be soluble inwater and cause staining problems.Thisadditive could contributesolublesaltsandresult inefflorescenceafterrepeated water infiltrationto the adhesive layerDepending on thetexture and porosityof thematerial'sbonding suface,certainadhesives may require more or less dwelltime inorder to allow absorption of adhesive, a process known as“wetting out”a surface.

Dimensional Stabilty (Moisture and Heat Sensitivity) Generally, thedense and compact nature of alowabsorption materialwillimpar gooddimensionalstabilitytomaterial, thereby making thefinishmaterialsuitaleforninustrillicion

Dimension and Surface Quality

Ceramic tilequarry tile,klinkertil,dairybrick nd porcelin pavers are manufactured materials, and therefore dimensional. Surfacetolerancesrequiredfordirectadhesioncanbeassured by selecting materials incompliance with established standards. For ceramic tile the applicable standards would be IS010545-2 (Standard for Dimension and Surface Quality) and ANSI A137.1 (American National Standard Specifications for Ceramic Tile), which incorporates ASTM C499 (Standard for Determining Faciadl Dimensions).For thin brick, ASTM C1088Type TBX (Specification for Thin Brick VeneerBrick UnitsMade from Clay orShale)governs dimensionand surface qualityStoneis generallyfabricatedto specificationforavariety of methods of installtion.There are uniform standards for dimension and surface quality of stone tiles or slabslistedforindividualvarietiesofstone.However,the use of stone is generally not acceptable for industrial applications

Characteristics of Ceramic Tile

In orderfoselect themost suitable type of ceramictile orpavers for an industrial application, and to understand the technical considerations foradhesive compatibility and installtion, the specifiermusthaveageneral understanding of theclassifications and physical properties of ceramic tile.

Water Absorption (Body of Tile)

The definition of water absorption is the measure of the amount of water that can be absorbed through pores of the ceramic tile. This characteristicis anindication ofaceramic tile'sstructure and overall performance.Water absorptionismeasured byASTM C373StanrdTestMthd forWater Aborptionulkensity ApparentPorosity,andApparentSpecificGravityofFiredWhitware Products)and IS010545-3 (Determination of Water Absorption, ApparentPorosity,ApparentRelativeDensity,andBulkDensity） percentage difference between dry and wet weight of tile.The water

Section 5: Types of Tiles for Industrial Applications

absorption characteristics of ceramic tile have significant influence on manyotherphysicalcharacteristis that are important toproper performance in industrial applications.Water absorption of ceramic tile for industrialapplications should be 3% or less. One important note on waterabsorption;today,porcelainceramictile isthe most popular choice.However,precision manufacturing processes now allow porcelain tiles with under 0.05% (negligible) water absorption rates.While this creates anexremelydurable product,itmakes adhesion with tradional porland cement adhesives difiult because these types of adhesives rely on absorption of cement paste to provide mechanicallocking of crystalswithinthe pore structure of the tile body.Porcelain tiles require the additional adhesive power of latex thin-set mortars orepoxy adhesives in order to developthe high bond strength and flexibility required forindustrial applications

Thermal Shock

The definition of thermal shock is the resistance to internal stress whena tile undergoes rapid changes in temperature.The significance of this characteristic is thatit provides an indication of good performance in industrial applications where there are constant cycles of thermal shock.Thermal shock is measured by ASTMC484 Standard TestMethod forThermal ShockResistance of Glazed Ceramic Tile) and IS0 10545-9 (Determination of Resistance to Thermal Shock)where there are no defects after10 cycles of sudden temperature change to and from 60 to 220°\mathsf{F} (15 加 105°0 .Industrilapplications experince suddentmperatre changes onarepeated basis.Hot or cold liquid spillscan subject the tile to thermal shock.Therefore, this consideration iscritical in determining the suitability of the tile for this purpose.

Thermal Expansion/Contraction

The definition of thermal movement is the amount of expansion or contractiona tile undergoes from temperature changes. The significance of this characteristic is thattile expands with temperature increases and contract withtemperature decreases. The measurement of a tiles thermal coefficient of expansion provides the designer with the information necessary todetermine compatibility of the tile with the substrate and adhesive materials, to calculate movement differentials,and forthedesign of movement (expansion) joints.Thermal expansion is measured by ASTM C372 (Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Porcelain Enamel and Glaze Frit and Fired Ceramic Whiteware Products by the Dilatometer Method) and IS0 10545-8 (Determination of LinearThermal Expansion)and expressed as the linearcoefficientof thermal expansion in units of in/in/F (mm/m/^{\circC}) ：

Frost Resistance

Frost resistance measures the ability of the ceramic tiletoresist the expansive action of freezing water. This characteristicis dependent on the tile absorptionrateand the shape and size of pores.Itis measured byASTM C1026 (Standard Test Method for Mesuring the Resistance of Ceramic Tile to Freeze-Thaw Cycling) and ISO 10545-12 (Determination of Frost Resistance).In many cases, industril applications where freze/thawmaybeanisse can include cooler and freezer areas.

Breaking Strength (Modulus of Rupture)

Breaking strengthprimarilydetermines resistance tothehandling and installtion process.This characteristicisa measure of the tilematerilnd notthetileitselfForexamle,ifyoucomard twotiles of the same material with one being twice as thick,both would have thesame unit breaking strength,but the thinner tile would require 75% less load or force tobreak.Impact resistance in service (fully adhered)isapproximately10 times greater than the minimum standard. It is measured by ASTM C648 (Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength of Ceramic Tile)and IS0 10545-4 (Determination of Modulus of Rupture and Breaking Strength) which requires a minimum strength for llfloor tile of 250 psi (1.75 Mpa).

Moisture Expansion

Moisture expansionis the dimensional change of ceramic tile asa result of changes in moisture.This is a significant characteristic for tile used in industrial applicationsbecause moisture expansion of clay is irreversible.It is measured by ASTM C370 (Standard Test Method for Moisture Expansion of Fired Whiteware Products) and ISO 10545-10 (Determination of Moisture Expansion).Moisture expansion isdirectlyproportional to absorption; thelower the absorption, the greater the resistance to moisture expansion and vice versa.ln order to accommodate moisture expansion,there must be properly placed expansion joints within the installtion itself to prevent heaving or failure due to moisture expansion of the finish material.

Slip Resistance (Dynamic Coefficient of Friction)

Many tile are manufactured forflooruse inmostly dry applications Tile used forindustrial environments should be slipresistant and have a high coefficient of friction. Testing for determining the coefficientof frictionshould beperformed to complywith ANSI A326.3,TestMethod forDynamicCoefficientofFrictionof Hard Surface Flooring Materials.