INDUSTRIALTILEANDPAVERAPPLICATIONS TECHNICALDESIGNMANUAL

LATICRETETechnical ServicesDepartment

Globally Proven Construction Solutions

Cover Photo: Vintage copper ketle in brewery-Belgium Photo CourtesyofTatiana Popova

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Industrial Tileand Pavers Applications-Technical Manual ⊚ 2020 LATICRETEInternationa,Inc.

SECTION1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preface
1.2 Industrial Tileand Paver Applications Considerations
1.3 Historyof CeramicTile and Thin Bed Mortar Adhesive Systems
1.4 Summary of Manual Content

SECTION2TYPESOFFLOORCONSTRUCTS 12

2.1 Structural Considerations Types of Structural Movement
2.2Structural Considerations Loads Requirements ofBuildingDesign Deflection
2.3Substrate Condition and Preparation EvaluationofSubstrateCondiion Adhesive Compatibilty Site Visit and Conference Job Site Conditions Moisture Content of Concrete ConcreteCring－AgeofConcrete Cracking PotentialBond Breaking Materials Substrate PreparationEquipmentandProcedures
Contamination Removal
2.4Uncommon Substrates Asphaltic Waterproofing Membranes Steel and Metal Exterior Glue Plywood
2.5Concrete Slab on Grade Placement of Concrete Slab Importance of Vapor Retarders Placementof Vapor Retarders Drivers of Moistre Vapor Testing for Moisture Contentin Concrete Commonly Used Moisture Test Procedures Efflorescence
2.6Suspended Concrete Slabs Cast-In-Place Concrete Slabs Mild Reinforcement Concrete Slabs Post-Tensioned Concrete Slabs Pre-Tensioned (Pre-Cast) Concrete Slabs Steel Frame (Deck) Concrete Slabs Tile Installtion Over Suspended Concrete Slabs
2.7 Steel Coolers and Freezers Temperatures Concrete or Mortar Bed Substrates Steel or Metal Substrates
2.8 References

SECTION3TYPESOFWALLCONSTRUCTION 35

3.1 Structural Considerations
3.2 Wall Types Concrete Wall Types
3.3 Concrete Curing
3.4 Concrete Masonry Units (CMU)
3.5 Framed Wall Substrates Cementitious Backer Units (CBU) Coated GlassMat Water-Resistant Gypsum Backer Board Fiber Cement Underlayment Fiber Reinforced Water-Resistant Gypsum Backer Board Cementitious Coated Foam Board
3.6Substrate Conditionand Prepartion Evaluationof Substrate Condition Adhesive Compatibility Site Visit and Conference Substrate Preparation Cracks Plumb and Level Surface and AmbientTemperature
3.7 References

SECTION4COMPARISONOFALTERNATEINDUSTRIALFLOORINGSYSTEMS

4.1Seamless Epoxy Flooring Systems GenerdlInformationonIdustralEoxyCoatings Life Expectancy Epoxy Coating Facts
4.2 Polished Concrete Floors Polished Concrete Limitations
4.3 References

SECTION5TYPESOFTILESFORINDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS

5.1Selectionof IndustrialAppicationTileTpes
Selection Criteria for Finish Materidl
5.2QuaryTile/Klinker Tile
5.3.Dairy Brick and Packing House Tiles
5.4Porcelain Tile and Pavers
5.5Abrasive Tile and Treatments
5.6Expansion and Contraction of Industrial FloorTile Finishes
5.7 References

SECTION6TYPESOFWATERPROOFINGMEMBRANES

6.1 Overview
6.2Sheet Membranes
6.3Peel and Stick Membranes
6.4Trowelable Membranes Latex Cement-Based Membranes Epoxy-Based Membranes Urethane Based Membranes

6.5Liquid Applied Membranes

SECTION7TYPESOFMORTARS/ADHESIVES/GROUTS 58

7.1Adhesive and Mortar Performanceand Selection Criteria Criteria for Selectionof Adhesivesand Mortars
7.2Types of Adhesives and Mortars Redispersible Polymer-Fortified Cement Mortar Typesof Redispersible (Polymeric)Powders

Liquid Latex-Fortified Cement Mortar Epoxy Resin Adhesives Furan (Furnane) Adhesives Bonding Agents (Slurry Bond Coats) 7.3 Methods of Installation Application Methods for Industrial Applications 7.4Types of Grout andJoint Filers Materials forJoint Groutingand Sealing 7.5ypical RendersandDetailsforIndustrialAlications 7.6 References

SECTION8METHODSOFINSTALLATION H

8.1Traditional Installtion Equipment and Procedures Weather and Substrate Preparation
8.2Finish Material Preparation Types of Finish Materials
8.3Adhesive Mixing Equipment and Procedures Types of Adhesives and Equipment
8.4Finish Material Instalation Equipment and Procedures InstallationofCeramic Tileand Paver Finishes
8.5Installtion ProcedureforFinishes Using Thin Bed Adhesives Functions ofa Notched Trowel Thin Bed Installation Procedure
8.6Groutand Sealant Materials Selection,MethodsandEquipment Purposeof GroutorSealantJoints Grout Instalation Procedure
8.7Post Installation Cleaning
8.8Mechanical Means and Methods
8.9Vibrated Floor System
8.10 References

SECTION9MAINTENANCEANDPROTECTION. 3

9.1Qudlity Assurance
9.2Preventative and Corrective Maintenance
9.3Typical Industrial Application Cleaning Regimens
9.4LATICRETE? SpectraLOCK2OO IG Regrouting Procedure
9.5ProtectionandSealing－WaterRepellent SealersandCoatings
9.6Altemativeto Using Sealers

SECTION1OINDUSTRYSTANDARDS,BUILDINGREGULATIONSANDSPECIFICATIONS 88

10.1Background
10.2Building Codes and Regulations
10.3Industry Standards
10.4Sample Specifications
10.5Sample Industrial Application Details

FLOORS:

ES-F111Concrete－Slab-On-Grade or Suspended－Unbonded Thick Bed ES-F114Concrete－Unbonded Thick Bed with Epoxy Grout ES-F115Concrete－Thin Bed with Epoxy Grout ES-F115BConcrete—Thin Bed with Epoxy Groutand Waterprofing Membrane ES-F133Concrete Slab-Chemical Resistant Thin Bed ES-F134Concrete Slab－Chemical Resistant Thick Bed－Industrial Grout ES-F312 Concrete Slab-Chemical Resistant Thin Bed With Waterprofing Membrane

INTERIORWALLS:

ES-W201(l)Concrete-Thick Bed With Metal Lath
ES-W202(I）Smooth Concrete－Thin Bed
ES-W221(l)Concrete/Masonry Units－Leveling Bed With Metal Lath
ES-W241(l)Steel Framing－Thick Bed With Metal Lath
ES-W244(l)Steel Framing－Cement Backer Board
ES-W302Glzed Block with Epoxy Grout
ES-W215Concrete－Spot Bonding
ES-W260Cement Backer Board－Spot Bonding

MISCELLANEOUS:

ES-WP300Typical PipePenetration ES-WP301Typical Drain Detail ES-WP302Drain Detail-Exploded View

EXPANSIONJOINTDETAILS:

EJ171-7MovementJointesinEssntials (nsertllapproprateDetails)

EJ-01Typical Expansion Joint－Unbonded Thick Bed
EJ-02Typical Expansion Joint－Bonded Thick Bed
EJ-O3Typical Isolation/Expansion Joint—Thin Bed
EJ-O4Typical Control Joint-Thin Bed
EJ-05Typical Perimeter Joint－Thin Bed
EJ-06Typical Generic Movement Joint
EJ-O7Typical Expansion Joint—Thin Bed
EJ-08Expansion Joint With Waterproofing Membrane Below Thick Bed
EJ-09Control Joint WithAnti-Fracture Membrane
EJ-1OExpansion Joint With Waterproofing Membrane Above Thick Bed
EJ-11Expansion Joint With Waterproofing Membrane－Thin Bed
EJ-14Cold Joint
EJ-15Movement Joint With Waterproofing Membrane-Unbonded Thick Bed

10.6LATICRETEArchitectural Guidebook
10.7 Industry References

SECTION11APPENDIX 92

11.1Industrial Applications FrequentlyAsked Questions
11.2 Glossary
11.3 ResourceGuide－Trade Organizationsand Technical Resources

Special thanks toMr.RichardGoldberg,ArchitectAlA,CSIforhiscontributions tothis technical designmanual. Authored bythe LATICRETE International,Inc.Technical Services Staff

Section 1: Introduction

1.1 Preface

LATICRETE International,g manufacturerof ceramic tile,stoneand brick masonry installation systems,has long recognized the need for α technical manual to provide guidelines and recommendations for thedesign,seciiidinstlofustaly and paver tile floor and wallinstallations.Technical advances in materials,manufacturing,and construction methods have expanded the roleof this type of application ever since the development of adhesive mortars in the 195O's.In keeping with their position as an industryleader,LATICRETEInternational ispublishing thiseditionof the IndustrialTileand Paver Applications Technical Design Manual. This manualwillmake state-of-the-art informationand technology available toarchitects,engineers,construction professionals,and manufacturers in the ceramic tile,paver and dairy brick industries.It is also the goal of this publication to encourage new ideas,research, and building regulations forthe purposeof improving the future of this construction technologyand the ceramic ile,paver and dairy brick industries.

1.2Industrial TileandPaver Applications Considerations

Inthepast,bulkyconventional thickbedmethodswere employed forthe nstallation of industrial ceramic tile,paver tileand dairy brick applications.Adhesive technology has opened up an entirely new world of aesthetic and technical possibilities for tiling in industrial applications.Industrialapplicationscan present manychallenges for thedesigner and the installer.

Many industrial instalations place tremendous stress on the tile or paver application and create α challenging environment not only for thefinish tileorpaver,butlsofortheinstalationsystemmaterials.

This design manual has been created with the intent to assist the design professional in assessing and specifying the correct installation system forthe specific application.

The building owner benefits from the more effcient and environmentally sensitive use of materials,resulting from reduced weight,lowercostof material,and moreeicient use of natural resources.

The building construction processis made more efficient by utilizing modern technology and installtion methods,which allreduce construction time,on-site laborcosts,and provide better quality assurance.

However,allthese advantages ofusing the systemsoutlined in this manualcanonly berealized with αnew approach to thedesign and construction of the areas that will receive the finish materials Design and construction techniques must be adapted to the specific requirements and behavior of constructionadhesive technology as well s the uniqueatributesofceramictile,paversand dairy brick finishes.

1.3 History of Ceramic Tile and Thin Bed Adhesive Systems

Ceramic tile has been used for centuries as α decorative and functional building material for buildings.Ceramic tile development can betracedto4000B.C.inEgypt.

Inthe195O's,Henry M.Rothberg,anengineerwholaterfounded LATICRETE Interational,iventedproductandnwdolg that would makedirectadhesiveatachmentofceramictile,stone and thin brick applications physicallyand economicallyfeasible. This development revolutionized both the ceramic tile and stone industries.

1.4 Summary of Manual Content

Ceramic tile,porcelain tile,pavers,quarrytileanddairybrick must be designed and constructed with careful consideration of the complex interactions that occur between the other components of an industrial tile assembly.This manual explores manyof the issues that a design professional will encounter as specifications and details are prepared for these demanding,high performance applications.

Section 2-Types of Floor Constructs

The selection and preparation of a substrate is one of the most critical steps in the design and construction of an industrial tile assembly.Suitability and compatibility of the most common substrates is overed inthis manual,aswellas comprehensive recommendations for preparation such as evaluation of level and plumb tolerances,surface defects,and the efect of climatic and siteconditionsonsubstrates.This section isaprimeronthe theory and terminology offloor construction.Types offloor structures and construction are presented,together with commentaryon applicabity totheinstalltionofceramictil,pavernddirybrick finishes for industrialapplications.

Section 3-Types of Wall Constructs

A primer on the theory and terminology of walls and wall construction.Types of wallstructures and construction are presented, together with commentary onapplicability to the installationof ceramic tile,paverand dairy brick finishes for industrial applications.

Section 4- Comparison of Alternate Industrial Flooring Systems

A comparisonof other popular industrial flooring systems. Advantages and disadvantages of each type are discussed

Section5-Types of Tilefor Industrial Applications Investigation and selectionof the proper type of finish material is an important design decision.Detailed criteria forthe assessment and selectionofceramictile,porcelaintile,paversqurytileand dairy brick are presented.

Section 6-Typesof Waterproofing Membranes

This section discusses the various types of waterproofing membranes thatareavailableonthemarket,and their suitabilityforuse in conjunction with tile applications. Criteria on selection and use are also discussed.

Section 7-Types of Mortars/Adhesives and Grouts This sectioncovers theentie rangeofassessingand determining the selection criteriaformortars,adhesives and grouts as wel as specific performance functions of installation materials for industrial applications.

Section 8-Methods of Installation

This section covers the entire range of installation and construction isses,from the various types of installation procedures to the equipment required for the instalation of industrial tile applications

Section 9-Maintenance and Protection

Cleaning,protection,and preventative maintenanceprocedures are presented to ensure long term performance of a tiled industrial application.

Section 10-Industry Standards,Building Regulations and Specifications

Detailed informationonaplicable industrystandadsandbuilding codes for ceramic tile adhesives is provided.

Architectural details show typical industrialtileapplicationssembly configurations and recommended design for such.Examples of these concepts are graphically depicted with various substrate/material combinations.Details include design recommendations for interface details such as penetrations,drain tieins,movement jointselants, flashings,and waterproofing membranes.

Section 2: Types of Floor Constructs

2.1 Structural Considerations

TYPESOFSTRUCTURALMOVEMENT

It is esentilthatallindustrialflooapplicationsbedesiged to accommodate alltypes of structural movement. Structural movement can transmit through the adhesive connection and tile orflooring system,accumulate,and then exert stress onthe floor, resulting in cracking,buckling,orloss of bond between the tile and adhesive or flooring system.

The different typesof structural movement are individually quantifiable through mathematical calculations which,for industrial floors,willmainlyberestrictedtooncrete substrates.Fortunately the structural theory used in most building codes dictates the use of "worst case"conditions;the calculated movements are of the highest possible magnitude inorder to provide α safety factor when exposed to most actual conditions.

Types of Structural Movement Include:

- Thermal Movement
-Creep
- Differentil Settement -Seismic

Thermal Movement

Thermal movement is g term that refers to the expansion or contraction of α substance in response to changes in temperature. All materials react tochanges in temperature.Whileallmaterials move inresponse to temperature,allmaterials can exhibit differences in both the speed of the reaction and the degree of movement when subjected to similar temperature changes.When two disimilar materials react dramatically different in the same environmenttenteliofilesivetomantaong bond through such challenges can be tested.In situations where dissimilar materials meetand flooring spansbothmaterials,racking or complete loss of bond maybe the likelyconsequence.Allowing for movement within the substrate layerand the flooring installation is criticaltoassure long-term,problem-free instalations.

There are two factors to considerin analyzing thermal movement:

1.The rates of expansion of different materials (i.e.linear coefficient of thermal expansion) 2.The anticipated temperature range exposure

Some building materials respond rapidly when exposed to temperature changes while concrete can respond more slowly.Some tile productsand flooring systems haveα higher tensile strength than concrete and may also respond to temperature changes at a different rate.Stresses applied to the finishes and concrete,as g result of the rapid or continuous movement of dissimilar materials, can be that the concrete cracks horizontally just below the bond line and the flooring system can fail at that point.

Thermal movement can be rapid and reoccuring. Rapid changes can be explained when normal conditions are introduced to extremely high temperatures(i.e.steamorovens)or extremecold(e.g.dry iceorliquid nitrogen).Temperaturechanges do not have tobe

Figure 2.1-Types of Structural Movement.

dramatic for movement to occur.Slower more repetitive temperature changes can be equally destructive.In these situations,there can becontinuous stress atthe bond linecaused bysuch things as daily recurring temperature changes.These temperature changes,in conjunction with time,can fatigue the weaker material at the bond line.Over time the weaker material(i.e.concrete),may cause the same failure as if it were exposed to rapid temperature changes (e.g.steam cleaning).The conditions that might cause loss of bond are not always obvious.

Some conditions to be aware of are:

- Direct Application of Steam -Areas Under Hot Ovens,Fryers or Commercial Dishwashers - Direct Application of Waterat or Above 1 8 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （204号 ( 8 2 ^ { \circ } \complement ) -Rapid or Wide Changes in Ambient Temperature - Applicationof Cold Water to Hot Surfaces

Whenselectingmaterialsfortilefloororanindustrialflooring system,beawareof theabove conditions.Aditionally,cleaning and disinfecting protocols requiring hot water or steam need to be considered,especiallyifteareaeingceanedisnormallykept cool,as inthecaseofcontrolld manufacturing facilities (i.e. food plants).

Ingplicationsofextreme temperature change,itmaybenecessary to use α coarser aggregate than that used in typical concrete. Thinner systems react well to thermal stresses because they areoftentoothintoexhibit destructive energyatthe bondline Tile installtion materials are more at the mercy of the concrete properties than the other way around.However,if the gpplication receives heavy vehicular traffc or extremely heavy loads,makesure thetile instalation materialsfittheservice requirement of "Extra Heavy"when tested in accord with ASTM C627(Standard Test Method for Evaluating Ceramic Floor Tile Installation Systems Using the Robinson-Type Floor Tester).

The primarygoalinanalyzing thermal movement is todetermine both the cumulative and individual diferential movement that occurs within and between components of the floor assembly.

Becausethethermalexpansionofthetileisgreater,thisfgureis used.The general rule for determining the width of α movement joint is 2-3 times the anticipated movement,or 3 x 2 1 mm ( . 8 2 " ) = 6 3 \mathsf {mm } ( 2 . 5 " ) .The minimum recommended width of any individual joint is10mm ( 3 / 8 " ) ,therefore,α minimum of 6 joints across q 5 0 \mathfrak { m } (154 f) floor, each 10 mm ( 3 / 8 " ) .n width is required just to control thermal movement under the most extreme conditions.

For example,gporcelain tile has an averagecoeffcientof linear expansion of between ( 4 { - } 8 x 1 0 ^ { - 6 } {mm } / ^ { \circ } { C } / m { m } ) of length. Concrete has an average expansion rate of 9 { - } 1 0 x 1 0 ^ { - 6 } \ : {mm } / ^ { \circ } ( / mm.The surface temperature of a porcelain tile in an application where steam is often used may reach as high as 1 4 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 6 0 ^ { \circ } \complement ) an ambient temperature in α moderately cold climate may be 1 4 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （204号 ( - 1 0 ^ { \circ } 0 ) ,or evencooler in freezer appications 0 1 - 2 0 ^ { \circ } F ( - 2 9 ^ { \circ } 0 .The temperature variation within this tile installation can vary by as much as 1 6 0 ^ { \circ } F ( 7 1 ^ { \circ } 0 .The temperature range of the concrete,insulated from the temperature extremes bythe tile and tile installationmortars,as well as length of exposure,may only be 8 5 ^ { \circ } { \mathsf { F } } （204号 ( 3 0 ^ { \circ } \complement ) .For a building that is 5 0 \mathfrak { m } wide,the differential movement can be calculated as follows:

Concrete . 0 0 0 0 1 0 x 5 0 0 md { m } x 1 0 0 0 md {mm } x 3 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 0 { x } 1 5 0 0 0 { x } Tile . 0 0 0 0 0 6 x 5 0 0 x 1 0 0 0 0 0 x 7 0 ^ { \circ } 0 = 2 1mm

Creep

Deformation movement inconcrete structures,also knownacreep occurs more slowly and can increase initial deflection by 2-3 times. Creep is the time dependent increase in strain of α solid body under constant or controlled stresses.The placement of movement joints is critical in the success of the structure.Also therealistic prediction of both the magnitude and rate of creep strain is an important requirement of the design process.While there are laboratory tests that an determine the deformation properties of concrete,they

are often skipped because of the time consuming nature and high cost of thetest.Incaseswhereonlygrough estimateofthecreep is required,an estimate can be made on the basis of onlya few parameters such as relative humidity,age of concrete and member dimensions.Ideally α compromise has to be sought between an estimate of the prediction procedure and the laboratory testing and mathematical and computer analyses.

Differential Settlement

Buildingsstructures are typicall designed toallow forqcertain tolerance of movement in the foundation known as diferential settlement.In most buildings the effect of normal diferential settlement movement on the flooring system is considered insignificant because the allowable settlement has occurred before theflooring system hasbeen installd.Diferentil settlementof buildings foundation that occurs beyond the alowable tolerances is consideredα structural defect,which can cause significant problems to any flooring system,including tile.At that point one would need to address the root cause of the problem and come to α solution before the flooring system can be properly repaired.Patching the visible problem areas in the flooring system will not provide an adequate solution,and one can expect repetition of the same issues in the floor.

Controlling Stresses With Movement (Expansion) Joints

Oneof the primary means ofcontrolling the stresses iduced by building movement,concreteshrinkgeandtypicalconcreteuring is with movement joints (also known as expansion,dilatation, orcontroljints)Allbuildingsndmaterialsmovetoaring degrees,and therefore the importance of movement joints cannot be understated.Atsome point inthelifecycleofan interior floor there willbeqconfluence of eventsorconditions that willrely on movement joints to maintain the integrity of the floor system. Maintaining integrityof the floor can be made as simple as preventing cracks in grout joints,to preventing complete adhesive bond failureof the tile.Proper design and construction of movement joints requires consideration of the following criteria:

- Location
- Frequency
- Size (Width/Depth Ratio)
-Type and Detailing of Sealant and Accessory Materials

Figure 2.4-Result of stresses induced byconcrete shrinkage and lack of movement joint control.As theconcrete shrinks,expansion jointsare required to relieve the stres. Whenexpansionjointsare omitedorre notsuficient,“tenting"oftetilescanoccur, creatig bondfalureandracking.

MOVEMENTJOINTS

Location of Movement Joints

The primary function of movement joints is to isolate the tile fromother fixed components of the building,and to subdivide the substrate and ile into smaller areas thereby compensating for the cumulative efects of building movement (see section 10 for specifications and details).Whileeach floor is unique,there re some universal rules for locationof movement joints that apply to any floor installation.Many of the universal rules for movement joints can be found in the current edition of the TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation,EJ-171.

Existing Structural Movement Joints

Movement joints mayalreadybeincorporated in the underlying structure to ccommodate thermal,seismic or other load types. These movement joints must extend through to the surface of the tile or flooring systems,and equally important,the width of the underlying joint mustbe maintained to the surface of the tile or flooring finishes.

Changes of Plane

Movement joints should be placed at all locations where there is a change in plane,such as outside and inside corners.

Location-Dissimilar Materials

As stated earlier inthis section,different materials have different rates and characteristics of movement. Movement joints must be located whereverthe floorfinishes and underlying adhesive and leveling mortars meet a dissimilar substrate,such as metal, penetrations,and α different type offloor finish.

Frequencyof Movement Joints

Guidelines for movement joints in tileand paver applications are every 2 0 ^ { \prime } to 2 5 ^ { \prime } 1 * 6 \mathsf { m } - 7 . 5 \mathsf { m } ) in every direction for interior applications,and 8 ^ { \prime } to 12' ( 2 . 4 \ : { m } - 3 . 6 \ : { m } ) in every direction for exterior applications and any interiortile work exposed to direct sunlight or moisture.The placement of α movement joint needs to be incorporated where tile work abuts restraining surfaces such as perimeter walls,disimilarfoors,curbs,columns,pipes,clig,d where changes occur in backing materials,but not at drain strainers. All expansion,control,construction,cold,and seismic joints ite structureshould continue through thetilework,includingsuch joints at vertical surfaces.Joints through tile work directly over structural joints must never be narrower than the structural joint.1

Size of Movement Joints

The proper width of α movement joint is based on several criteria.Regardless of the width,as determined by mathematical calculations,the minimum functional width of a movement joint should be no less than 1/4"(6 mm);any joint narrower than this makes the proper placement of backer rods and sealant materials impractical and does not provide adequate movement allowance.

The width of α movement joint filled with sealant material must be 3 to 4 times wider than the anticipated movement in order to allow proper elongationandcompression of the sealant.Similarly the depth of the sealant material must not be greater than half the width of the joint to alow for proper functioning of the movement joint (width/depth ratio).For example,if1/4"(6 mm)of cumulative movement isanticipated in the floor,the movement joint should be1/2-3/4"(12－18 mm) wide and 1 / 4 { - } 3 / 8 " ( 6 - 9 \mathsf {mm } ) deep.A rounded backup rod is inserted in the joint

to control depth,and to keep thesealantfrom bonding to the substrate.Sealants are products that should only be bonded to two paralel surfaces (the sides/flanks of two tiles).Sealant bonding to 3 surfaces (the sides/flanks of two tiles and the substrate)means that the sealant can lose 7 5 % of its effectiveness.So the backer rod,which thesealant does notbondto,is very importanttothe success of the sealant.

Sealants

Sealants should beα neutral cure,high performance (also known αs Class A,orhave,α Shore-A hardness of25or greater),viscous liquid type capable of 1 2 . 5 { - } 2 5 % movement. Silicone sealants can have theability tocompress to 5 0 % of its original width and expand up to 1 0 0 % Floors exposed to heavy vehicular trafic(e.g.forklift or moving machinery)may require α sealant with α higher A-Shore hardness as specified.

Pre-fabricated movement joints,which typicallyconsistof two L-shaped metal angles connected by α cured flexible material often may not meet the above movement capability required for an industrial application where extreme temperature changes occur (i.e. steam cleaning).Similarly,the selection of non-corroding metal, such as stainless steel,isequred topreventcorrosionbykaline content of cement adhesive or galvanic reactions with other metals.

Pre-fabricated movement joints are commonly instaled in advance of the flooringfinishes,soitisiticaltoprevent excessive mtar from protruding through the punched openings in the metaljoint. The hardened mortar may subsequently prevent proper bedding of the tile orfinished flooring onto the floor in these areas.

Mechanical Properties

Sealants should have good elongation and compression characteristics,as wellas tear resistance to respond to dynamic loads,thermal shock,and other rapid movement variations which are not unusual for industrialfloors.Many industrial floors are exposed to extreme vibrations from heavy machinery and are constantly under stress from these vibrations.

Compatibility

Some sealants may stain finishes,or curing by-products may be corrosive to concrete,metals,or waterproofing membranes.There are many types and formulations of sealant products,so it is important to verify compatibilityand acceptabilityfor the intended Use.Compatibility varies by manufacturer's formulations,and not by sealant or polymer type.For example,acetoxy silicones cure by releasing acetic acid and can be corosive; neutral cure silicones do not exhibit this characteristic.

Fluid migration and resultant staining is another compatibility issue to consider with sealants.There is no correlation with polymer type (i.e.silicone Vs.polyurethane) and fluid migration is dependent solely on manufacturer's formulation.Dirt contamination is another common problem and can be associated with type of exposure, surface hardness,type and length of cure,and formulation,but not the sealant polymer type.Performing α test area to determine compatibility is recommended to make sure that problems are not encountered in the field during installation.

Adhesion

Sealants must have good tensile adhesion to non-porous or porous finish surfaces,ideallywithout special priming orsurface preparation.

Subjective Criteria

Color selection,ease of application,toxicity,odor,maintenance,life expectancy and cost are some of the aditional subjective criteria that do not affct performance,but do require consideration.

Types of Sealant

High performance sealants are synthetic,viscous liquid polymer compounds known as polymercaptans,polythioethers,polysulfides polyurethanes,and silicones.Each type has advantages and disadvantages.As α general rule,polyurethane and silicone sealants areαgood choice for ceramic tile,pavers,dairy brick and resinous flooring finishes.

Polyurethanes and silicones are available in either one-component cartridges,sausage packs,or pails; some polyurethanes come in two-component bulk packages,which require mixing and loading into a sealant applicator gun.Both types of sealants are typically available in α wide range of colors.

Installation of sealants and accessories into movement joints requires skilled installr who is familiar with sealant industry practices.The installation must start with α clean,dry and dust free surface.Some products or materials require the use of α primer to improveadhesionorpreventfuid migration.Ifaprimeris necessary it should be installed before instalationof the backerrodand it may be necessary to protect underlying flashing or waterproofing to avoid deterioration by primer solvents.Any excess mortar,spacers or other restraining materials must be removed to preserve freedom of movement.Ifnecessaryprotect thefinish surface withmasking tape to facilitate the cleaning process.The use of α suitable backer rodorbond breaking tape is typicallyused to prevent three-sided adhesion and to help regulate depth of the sealant. Once the sealant has been applied,it is necessary to toolor press the sealant to ensure contact with the tile or finish edges; the backer rod also aids this process by transmitting the tooling force to the tile/finish edges.Proper toolingof thesealant jointalso gives thesealant a slightly concave surface profile consistent tothe interior surface against the rounded backer rod.This allows even compresion/ elongation,and prevents α visuallysignificantbugeof the sealant under maximum compression.

2.2 Structural Considerations

LOADS

Forces that act onstructures are called loads.Typically,dead loads are static in nature,which means they either do not change or change nfrequently.Dead load is essentially the weight of the structure itself;anything permanentlyattched to the structure would be considered part of the dead load.This would include wals, flooring,roofing,columns,andsoon.

Live loads are the weight of items in the building.Live loads are not static as they can change.Examples oflive loads would be people, furniture and vehicular traffc (including forklifts).Live loads can have α profound efect on the success of a tile installation and on the long-term performance of the entire structure.Suitable alowance must be made for all anticipated live loads with enough allowance to meet any additional loads placed on the system in the future.

REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDINGDESIGN

Buildings must be designed for the specific use that they will be utilized for.Thearchitect or engineer has to know what the building is going tobeusedfor inordertoproperlycalculate thedifferentlive loads involved.Ifasecond storyfloor were going tohave forklifts driving on it,the design professional would have to calculate the total anticipated live load.Suitable alowance must be made for all anticipated live loads with enough allwance to meet anyadditional loads placed on the system in the future.

DEFLECTION

Floorsystems over which the tile will be installed,shalbe in conformance with the International Building Code (IBC)or applicable building codes for commercial applications².Historically,foreramic tile and paver applications,the maximum allowable deflection should not exceed L/36O under total anticipated load

The ceramic ile industryabides by the following note ondeflection: theownershould communicate in writing to the projectdesign professional and general contractor the intended use of the tile installtion,inodertnabletheprojectdesignprofessioalnd general contractor to make necessary allowances for theexpected live load,concentrated loads,impactloads,anddead loads including theweightofthetileandsettingbed.Thetile instalershallnot beresponsible foranyfloorframingorsub-floorinstallation not compliant with applicable building codes,unless the tile instaler or tilecontractordesignsand instals thefloorframingorsub-floor."3 (see section 1O Building Codes and Industry Standards for more information).These are also good 'rules of thumb'to follow for other resinous flooring finish typesasthis levelof detail maybe absent for other finish types.

2.3 Substrate Condition and Preparation

EVALUATIONOFSUBSTRATECONDITION

Thefirststepinsubstrate preparation is theevaluationof the type of ubstrateand its surface condition.This includes the levelness (planeorflatesviation),dentificationofgenerdetsg structural cracks,shrinkage cracks,laitance,etc...)presence of curing compounds or surface hardeners,and contamination. Concrete should haveαwood float or light steel trowel finish for properadhesionofthin-sets,membranes orresinous flooring finishes. Over-finishing α concrete surface can close the pores and may inhibit proper adhesion of these materials.

The ability of asubstrate to be weted byanadhesive is essential to good adhesion and important in determining the performance of the adhesive in bonding to the substrate.This means that not onlyshould the substrate possessa balance between porosity and texture,but also that the surface must beclean of any contaminationsuch as dust or dirt that would prevent weting and contact of an adhesive or coating.The levelness tolerance or smoothness of α substrate surface also plays an important role in allowing proper contact and wetting of anadhesive.Typicaly,the greater the surface area to which the adhesive is in contact,the better the adhesion.

ADHESIVECOMPATIBILITY

Compatibilityplays an important role in determining adhesion between the substrate and the finishes being instaled.The substrate material must be compatible not only with adhesive／coating attachment,but also with the type of adhesive coating under consideration.This means that the substrate material must have good cohesive qualities to resist tensile and sheer stress and not have anadverse reaction with the proposed adhesive/coating. Similarly,thefinish being installedmustalso becompatible with the adhesive.A general consideration in determining compatibility with adhesives/coatingisas follows;

The installation of any finish material with an adhesive willonly be as good as the setting materials and the substrate to which the finish material willbe bonded.The highest strength adhesives/ coatings and most careful application with the best quality tile/ finish will ot overcome α weak or dirty substrate.

This section provides information on the identification of common substrate characteristics and defects,and the preventative and corrective actions necessary for proper surface preparation.

SITEVISIT AND CONFERENCE

Prior to commencing work,the contractor shallinspect surfaces to receivefinishesand acessories,and shall notifythearchitect, general contractor,orotherdesignated authorityin writingof any visually bvious defects or conditions that willprevent asatisfactory installtion.Installtion work shallnot proceed untilstisfactory conditions are provided.Commencing instalation of work typically means acceptance of substrate conditions.4

JOB SITE CONDITIONS

The following items are examples of potential isses that may need to be addressed prior to commencing the instalation:

Contamination

Any surface to receive ile or coatings willalways be exposed to varying degrees of contamination,especially normal construction dustand debris.The instalation offinish flooring is often the last phase of the construction of a building.Imagine allothertrades have been inand finished theircertain partof theconstruction, (i.e.sheet rock,plumbing,painting,and many other trades).There is often paint,drywallcompound,oilandother materialsonthe concrete from prior trades that need to be removed.One of the most difficult jobs forany installer is the preparation of the surface before the installationof the tile commences.But,it isone of the most importantsteps,if notthe most importantstep,inroviding forsuccessful,longlsting installation.Ceaning tefaceis mandatory before finishes are placed,and sometimes multiple washings willhave to take place before the finish work commences. Just sweeping the floor is not good enough!

With most adhesives or cement leveling mortars/renders,such αs latex cement mortars or moisture insensitive adhesives,the substrate can be dampduring installation; however,it cannot be saturated.The objective is not to saturate the floor,but to make sure dllthe dusanddebris isremovedbeforetiling.

MOISTURECONTENTOFCONCRETE

Materials used in industrial applications can be affected by moisture during the installationand curing phase.For example,the strength of cementitious adhesives can be reduced from constant exposure to wet or damp substrates.Some materials,such as waterproofing membranes,may not cure properly or may delaminate from α continually wet substrate.A damp substrate may also contribute to the formation of efflorescence.

There are generall three tests that are used to determine moisture content in concrete.The three tests are ASTM F1869 (Standard Test Method for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete Subfloors Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride),ASTM F2170(Standard Test Method for Determining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using in situ Probes)and ASTM D4263 (Standard Test Method for Indicating Moisture in Concrete bythe Plastic Sheet Method).The Calcium Chloride test involves placing q petri dish of calcium chloride (covered byα plastic dome adhered to the concrete)on the concrete and allowing the petri dish to remain in place for between 6O-72 hours.The calcium chloride absorbs any moisture vapor that transmits through the concrete within the plastic dome.The results of a calcium chloride test measures the amount of moisture absorbed and results are stated in pounds per 1,000f² ( 9 2 . 9 { { m } } ^ { 2 } ) in α 24-hour period.The Relative Humidity Test involves placing probes in theconcreteand taking readings withahygrometer.Arelative humidity readingof 7 5 % or below is acceptable for most tile or coating gpplications.The Plastic Sheet Method involves taping 0 . 2 4 " x 2 4 " （204号 ( 6 0 0 {mm } x 6 0 0 {mm } piece of plastic on theconcrete and alowing the plasticto remain in place forl8－24 hours to determine if any moisture has accumulated under the plastic when it is removed.Both ASTM F1869 and ASTM F217Oare quantitative tests (stating approximately how much moisture is present)while ASTM D4263 is α qualitative test (stating that moisture is present but not how much),and all are α "snapshot"of moisture vapor emission during the testing period Please refer to Section 2.5 for more information on moisture content in concrete.

Figure 2.5-ASTMF1869 Calcium Chloride Test Kit and ASTM F217O Relative Humidity Meter.

Surface and Ambient Temperatures

Duringthe placement of concreteand instalation of other types of substrates,extreme cold or hot temperatures may cause numerous surface or internal defects,including shrinkage cracking,q weak surface layer of hardened concrete caused by premature evaporation,or frost damage.Once the concrete is cured,extreme temperatures of both the ambient air and surface of the substrate can also afect the normal properties of tile adhesives, membranes and coatings.

Elevated ambient air and surface temperatures ( > 9 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } { \displaystyle [ 3 2 ^ { \circ } 0 ] } 0 willacceleate thesettingofcment,latexcement,epoxydhesives and resinous flooring products.Washing and dampening floors wil serve to lower surface temperatures for latex cement mortars and epoxyadhesives.Shading the substrate,if exposed to sunlight,is alsoeffective in lowering surface temperatures,but if ambient temperatures exceed 1 0 0 ^ { \circ } F ( 3 5 ^ { \circ } 0 ) ,it isadvisabletodeferwork with adhesives and coatings to α more suitable time.Humidity may also have an effect on the curing of membranes and portland cement-based adhesives and grouts.Higher humidity will work to slow down cure rates while low humidity will accelerate the curing process.

Flatness and levelness

Aflat,planesubstrate isan important concer foranytileofloor coating instalation requiring α direct bond adhesive application. Acceptable tolerance is1/4"in10'(6 mm in 3m) and 1/16 (1.5 mm in 3 0 0 {mm } ) from the required plane to conform with the ANSl specifications for ceramic tile installations.Greater deviations prevent the proper installation oftile into theadhesive,which may result in numerous problems,including loss of bondorlippage.

If levelness tolerance is exceeded,then itmaybe necessaryto employ remedial work,such as re-construction,patching,grinding, or installation of αself-leveling underlayment (e.g.NXT Level Plus or SUPERCAP SC500)orαmortar bed(e.g.370lFortified Mortar Bed; or,226 Thick Bed Mortar mixed with 37O1 Mortar Admix).

If the tolerance is within specifications,then the use ofαlargeand heavy tile (LHT)adhesive mortar and α larger size notch trowel can aleviate any minor defects in the substrate.Please note that while g LHT mortar may be used to correct minor substrate defects,it is important to stay within the product manufacturer's guidelines for thickness of the setting material.Forthe preparation of substrates for LATICRETE resinous flooring systems,please reference the specific requirements in each of the respective LATICRETEproduct data sheets for aditional information.

CONCRETE CURING-AGE OFCONCRETE

Theage of aconcrete substrate is important due to thefact that as concrete cures and loses moisture,it shrinks.Under normal conditions,28 days is the time that it typically takes for concrete to reach its full design strength.Thicker sections of concrete may take α longertime to reach full designstrength.At that point,concrete wil have maximum tensile strength and can better resist the effects of shrinkage and stress concentration.

Depending upon the curing techniques and exposure to humidity or moisture,theremay be verylitle shrinkage in thefirst 28 days. Flexibleadhesives,certain latexorpolymer-fortifiedthin-set mortars or(e.g.257 TITANIUM"or MULTIMAX" Lite),can accommodate the shrinkage movement and stress that may occur in concrete less than 28 days old.In some cases it may be recommended to wait a minimum of 3O-45 days to reduce the probability of concentrated stress on the adhesive interface.Some building regulations or codes may require longer waiting periods of up to 6 months.Afterthis period,resistance to concentrated stress is provided bythe tensile strength gainof the concrete,and itsability to shrink asαcomposite assembly.Theeffectof theremainingshrinkage issignificantly reduced by its distribution over time and accommodated by the use of flexible adhesives.

CRACKING

Freshly placed concrete undergoes g temperature risefrom the heat generated bycement hydration,resulting in an increase in volume. As theconcretecools to thesurrounding temperature,itcontracts andis susceptibletowhatis termed "plasticshrinkage"racking due to the low tensile strength within the first several hours after the pour.

Concrete also undergoes shrinkage as it dries out,and can crack from buildup of tensile stress.Rapid evaporation of moisture results in shrinkage at an early stage where the concrete does not have adequate tensile strength to resist even contraction.Concrete is most susceptible to drying shrinkage cracking within the first 28 days of placement during which it develops adequate tensile strength to resist a more evenly distributed and less rapid rate of shrinkage.It is for this reason that it is recommended to wait 3O-45 days before direct application of adhesive mortars.

Plasticshrinkageoccurs beforeconcretereachesitsinitialset,while drying shrinkage occurs after the concrete sets.These types of shrinkage cracks generally do not produce cracks larger than 1/8" (3 mm) in width.

Treating Shrinkage Cracks

There are two diffrent ways to treat shrinkage cracks for ceramic tile and paver installations.Thefirst way is detailed in the LATICRETE Architectural Guidebook-ES-F125 (available at www.laticrete. com/ag)or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation－F125. This method only treats the individual crack and not the entire floor Be sure to follow the LATICRETE Execution Statement and detail ES-F125or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation－F125 for proper installation recommendations.

The second method of treating the shrinkage crack would be detailed inthe LATICRETEArchitectural Guidebook-ES-F125A (available at www.laticrete.com/ag)or TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation－Fl25A.This method uses the antifracture membrane over the entire floor.Following this method will help to protectthe finished installation from cracks currently in the concrete substrate and any cracks which may develop over time.For the

treatment of concrete shrinkage cracks when coating with LATICRETE resinous flooring systems,please reference the specific requirements in each of the respective LATICRETE product data sheets for additional information.

Structural Cracks

There is notileorcoatings installtion practiceormethodfortreating any crack over1/8"(3 mm)wide or structural cracks that experience differential vertical movement.These cracks are considered structural in nature and would require determination of the cause of the crack.Once the cause of the structural movement is determined,itmustberemedied priortorepairingtheflooring installtion.Repair techniques can varyand αstructural engineer should be consulted prior to any remediation or installation of a flooring system.

Excessive foundation settlement and movement can be caused by building on expansive clay,compresibleorimproperlycompacted fil soils,or improper maintenance around foundations.Whatever the cause,settlement can destroy the value of a structure and even render it unsafe.In any case,wateris the basic culprit in the vast majority of expansive soil problems.Specific components of certain soils tend to swell or shrink with variations in moisture.The extent of this movementvariesfromsoiltypetosoil type

When unstable soils are used as a base for a foundation,the tendency for movement is transmitted to the foundation.Since soil movement is rarely uniform,the foundation is subject toα vertical differential movement or upheaval.If all the soil beneath a foundationswels uniformly,there usually is no problem.Problems occur,however,whenonlypart ofthe slab settles.Then,differentia movement causes cracks or other damages. Once again this condition must be corrected before any flooring installtion can occur.

Potential Bond Breaking Materials

Aflooring installation isonlyas good asits adhesion to the substrate.Anadhesiveorcoating,inanyform,willbond tothefirst thing itcomes incontact with.Ifthat material isdirt,dust,pintor any other impediment that is lying on αsurface,then theadhesion to that substrate can be compromised.The importance of α good, clean surface cannot be over-emphasized,regardless of the substrate or flooring type.

Laitance

Laitance is g surface defect in concrete where α thin layer of weakened portland cement fines have migrated to the surface with excess “bleed"water or air from unconsolidated air pockets.Once the excess water evaporates,it leaves behind α thin layer of what appears to be α hard concrete surface,but in reality is weakened due to the high water to cement ratio atthe surface.Laitance has α verylow tensilestrength,andtherefore theadhesionofflooing systems willbe limited by the low strength of the laitance.

Mechanical methods,indluding the use of chipping hammers or scarifying machines,are recommended. Concrete should be removed until sound,cleanconcrete is encountered.Measurementof surface tensile strength and theabsence of loose material are good indicators of sound concrete.

Abrasive blasting bymeans ofdrywetor bead/shot-blastmethods are preferred for the removal of laitance on new and fully cured concrete.Compressed air used in these methods must be oil free Since wetabrasive blasting reintroduces moisture into the concrete, sufficient drying time must be allowed.

Curing Compounds and Sealers

Liquid curing compounds and sealers are topically applied materials, which are designed to keep moisture in the slab.The constant amount of water kept in the concrete by the curing compounds helps accelerate the curing time and improve the performance of the concrete.Curing compounds and concrete sealers are frequently Used nlltypes of onstruction,especially in fast track jobs Unfortunatelylltypesofcuringompounds,oncretelersd surface hardeners must be completely removed from the slab prior totheflooring installtion.Thebestmethod toremove thsecuring compounds from the surface would be to bead-blast or shot-blast the concrete surface.

There s a very simple and efective test to identify the presence of curing compounds,sealers or other bond breaking conditions.Simply sprinkle α few drops of water onto the substrate and see what happens.If water absorbs into the slab then it is usually suitable for the direct adhesion of tile orcoatings.On theother hand,if the water beads up on the concrete surface (like water on α freshly waxed car)then there is something present on the concrete surface that can inhibit properadhesion.

Tile and Paver Installations over Existing Coatings

Seamless epoxy floors are used in many applications.It is important to note that these epoxy floor coverings are much different than epoxy painted surfaces.For example,warehouses,labs,automobile shops and dealerships,loading docks,and many more applications use epoxy coatings. Many renovation projects or new ownership in buildings desire to installnew tileoverthe epoxy coatings.There cre two options for installing tile over an epoxyfloor coating.The first option wouldbetoremove theepoxycoating byshot-blasting bead-blastingoecnicalscarifictoOcelh is removed,installationof thetilecancommence irectly over the concrete.

The second option would be to installthe tile with LATAPOXY? 300 Adhesive.The only typeof product that willbond to an epoxy coated floor is an epoxyadhesive.The existing epoxyfloor must be well bonded withnoloose peling epoxyorchips in theepoxycoating. The coating needs tobe verycleanand free fromalldust,oils, waxes,or anyother posible bond breakers.If thereare loose peling spotsorchipsinthecoating,itisgood indicationthatthecoating may need tobe completely removed prior to installng tile.

SUBSTRATEPREPARATION EQUIPMENT ANDPROCEDURES

Todetermineifbondinhibitingcontaminationsuchasoiloruring compounds are present on concrete,conduct the following test: taking proper safety precautions,mix a1:1 solution of aqueous hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and water,and place a few drops in various locations.If the solution causes foamingaction,then the acid is allowedtoreactfrlywiththealkalineconcrete,indicatingthat thereis nolikelycontamination.Ifthereislitleornoraction chances are the surface is contaminated with oil or curing compounds Acids do not affect or remove oily or waxy residue,so mechanical removal may be necessary.

CONTAMINATIONREMOVAL

If contamination removal is required,orif surface damage ordefects exist,bulk surfaceremoval maybe necessaryto prepare the substrate totherquiredconcretesurfaceprofile(CSP)ofthespecificflooring system that is being installed..There are several methods of removal but it is importantto select a method thatisappropriate to the substrate material and will not cause damage to the sound material below the surface.The following methods are recommended:

METHODSOFREMOVAL

Mechanical Chipping, Scarifying and Grinding

Mechanical chipping,scarifying or grinding methods are recommended only when substrate defects and/or contamination exist in isolated areas and require bulk surface removal greater than 1 / 4 " (6 mm)in depth.Chipping with α pneumatic square tip chisel or grinding with an angle grinder are common mechanical removal techniques.

Figure 2.6－Dustless Grinding.

Shot-blasting

This is q surface preparation method which uses proprietary equipment to pummel the surface of concrete with steel pellets at high velocity.The pelets of varying diameters,are circulated in a closed,self-contained chamber,where the pelletsand debris are separated.The debris is collected inone container and the pellets are re-circulated for continued use.This is the preferred method of substrate preparation when removal of α thin layer of concrete surface is required,especially the removal of surface films (e.g.curing compounds or sealers) or paint.

Figure2.Bstc.otBlsting chney

Water-Blasting

High pressure water blasting using pressures over 3,Ooo-10,000 psi (21-69 MPa) willremove the surface layer of concrete and expose aggregate to provideα clean,rough surface.Thorough rinsingof the surface with waterafer water-blasting is necessary to remove any laitance.Water-blasting is only recommended on concrete because of the high pressure.Proper allowance must be made to allow for the excess water in the slab to dry.This method is commonly used on vertical surfaces.

Acid Etching

Acid etching or cleaning is never recommended to clean α surface priorto receiving flooring finishes.Ifanacid is not neutralized or cleaned properly after the cleaning takes place,it can continue to weaken the flooring installation materials when in the presence of moisture.Acid must be neutralized with Tri-Sodium Phosphate or baking soda mixed with water and then completely rinsed to ensure ll theacid is removedfrom the surface.Again,acid is not recommended forcleaning concrete,sinceit has an adverse affect on portland cement.A chemical reaction occurs when portland cement and acid are introduced to each other that can destroy the cement matrix.The interaction between the acid and the portland cement exposes the concrete aggregates and weakens the concrete

Acid can also leave α white powdery substance on the surface which can act as α bond breaker for any tile installation material.To avoid any potential problems it is best to avoid the use of acids as α substrate preparation method.

FINALSURFACE (RESIDUE) CLEANING

The final and most important stepof substrate preparation is the final cleaning,not only of the residue from contamination and bulk removal processes described above,but also cleaning of loose particles and dust from airborne contamination.

The final cleaning is considered minimum preparatio forull substrates.Final cleaning can be accomplished by pressurized water as mentioned above,but can also be accomplished with standard pressure waterand someagitation to eliminate the bond-breaking effect of dust fims.In somecases,airborme contamination is constant,requiring frequent washing justprior to installation of cement leveling plaster/renders,adhesive mortars, membranes or coatings.

There is no exception from this general ruleand the only variation is the drying time of the substrate prior to the application of the adhesive or coating.Drying time is dependent on the type of adhesive being used.With most adhesives,the substrate can be damp,with no standing water.Asurface film of water wil inhibit grab and bond of even water insensitive cement and epoxy-based adhesives.The use ofadamp sponge just priorto instalationof tile is an industry accepted method to ensure that the substrate is cleaned of any dirtand construction dust on the properly prepared substrate.

Contaminated Slab Alternative

On contaminated concrete slabs where it is not feasible to remove the top surface by α suitable method,an unbonded (wire-reinforced mortar bed would be the best alternative.Please refer to the LATICRETE ES-F11lavailableat www.laticrete.com/agorto Section 10 for more information.

Figure 2 . 8 - Installtion of an unbonded mortarbed.Diagramcourtesyof International Masonry Institute18

2.4 Uncommon Substrates

ASPHALTICWATERPROOFINGMEMBRANES

Asphaltic (petroleum-based) waterproofing placed over substrate surfaces are generally not compatible with tile instalation adhesives. The presence of this type of waterproofing would dictate the method of installation that would have to be used.An unbonded wire reinforced mortar bed (ES-F111),available at www.laticrete com/ag,would be the best option for instaling over this type of waterproofing product.(See Section 1O for executions statement on this method).

STEELANDMETAL (see section2.7for more information)

Steel and metal substrates require an epoxy adhesive or the mechanical fastening of diamond metal lath to the steel and the instalationofamortarbed duetothe high densityand verylow porosity of this type of material.Portland cement or latex portland cement adhesives,by themselves,do not develop adequate bond to metals without expensive preparation or special adhesive formulations (See Section 1O for an execution statement on this method)．Please refer to LATICRETEES-S313and ES-314at www.laticrete.com/ag or to Section10 for more information.

EXTERIORGLUEPLYWOOD

Plywood and other wood-based products generallyhave high water absorption rates,and undergo rates of volumetric swelling and subsequent shrinkage that make these materials unsuitable as α substrate in industrialapplications.The Tile Council of North America (TCNA)classifies most plywood floor substrates as residential and light commercial use.This clasification would negate using plywood in any type of industrial application.

2.5 Concrete - Slab-On-Grade

PLACEMENTOFCONCRETESLAB

The vast majorityof allcommercial tile and floring systems installtions are adhered directly to concrete.The most important factor for good,hardconcrete is the water-to-cement ratio.Concrete needs water to hydrate and harden,but too much water can have α detrimental effect onconcrete.Too little water willalso affect the final performance of the concrete product.Understanding water and its effctonconcreteis critical toachieving the desired results from g concrete slab.Water escapes from concrete via evaporation and also transpires through concrete from other sources and passes through as moisture vapor.

The water used to mix concrete must be clean (potable) and free of acids,alkalisoils,orsulfates.This isnecessaryforproperhration and curing of the concrete.There is α direct relationship between the strength characteristic of portland cement-based concrete and the amount of water used per weight of cement.This is known as

Abram'sLaw (Duff Abrams,1918).Essentially,the lower the waterto-cement ratio the higher the resultant physical properties of the concrete willbe.Rule of thumb; LESSWATER \ c = BETTER CONCRETE. 5

Figure 2.9－Placement of Concrete Slab (Photo courtesy of California State DOT).

A properly designed concrete mixture will possess the desired workabilityfor the fresh concrete and the required durability and strength forthe hardened concrete.Typically,gmix is about 1 0 { - } 1 5 % cement, 6 0 { - } 7 5 % aggregate (fine and coarse combined), 1 5 ‰ water and 5 { - } 8 % entrained air.6The project engineer or design professional is responsible forspecifying the actual concrete properties as required for each individual project.

Concrete wil very often have an excess amount of water added to make the concrete easily workable. However,because portland cement onlyrequires qcertain percentage of its weight to hydrate, the excess water (water of convenience）will eventually escape. Much of the excess waterwillescape through capillry action (bleeding)whiletheconcreteisinitsplasticstateduring consolidation and finishing operations.Proper cure of concrete to attain the desired physical properties requires that moisture in concrete be maintained foraminimumof 3to7days depending on temperature,humidity,type of cement,and typeof admixtures used.

Typically,thefirstthing thataconcretecontractor wildoonajob site is perform α slump test to make sure that the concrete meets the slump criteria for that particularconcrete.Unfortunatelymany concrete contractors do not like the workabilityof concrete that passes the slump test.If this is the case,then the next words heard on the job site are"ADD MOREWATER".The concrete contractor may,without their knowledge,be afecting the final performance of the concrete.The fact is,ifone extra gallon (3.8L)of water is added to α cubic yard ( \mathsf { l } \mathsf { m } ^ { 3 } ) of 3,000psi (21 MPa) concrete then one or more of the following problems may occur:

1.Finished concrete can develop 5 % less than its intended design strength
2.Slump may increase by1"(25 mm)
3.Compressive strength can be lowered by 150psi (1 MPa)or more
4.The effect of 1/4 sack of concrete can be wasted
5．Shrinkage potential increases
6．Resistance to attack byde-icing salts is decreased
7.Freeze/thaw resistance can be decreased by 2 0 %

IMPORTANCEOFVAPORRETARDERS

Vapor retarders are necessary because concrete is q moisture-and vapor-permeable material.In fact,concrete can be thought of as being a very hard,dense sponge.Moisture vapor easily passes through concrete and can lead to problems with certain types of impervious tile,membranes,seting materials,and other types of flooring materials.Inmanycases,the vapor retarder is typicall 10 mil (.25 mm）thick polyethylene sheet placed directly under the concrete slab.Choosing the proper vapor retarder can be important since many polyethylene sheet materials are made with some recycled organic content.This organic content can decay over time leaving voids or holes through the sheeting;rendering it as an ineffective barrier.For better long term performance,architects and engineers are recommending 1 0 0 % virgin polyethylene or15 mil reinforced polyolefin as the vapor retarder.Proper placement and instalation of the vapor retarder should also be specified by α qualified architect or engineer and shown in project details.No matter what material is used as the vapor retarder,it should conforn to ASTM E1745(Standard Specification for Water Vapor Retarders Used in Contact with Soil or Granular Fill Under Concrete Slabs).

Figure2.10－Typical15MilThick Sheet Type Vapor Retarder一 Photo Courtesy of Insulation Solutions.Inc.

A vapor retarder must have q maximum perm rating of O.3 perms (0.2 metric perms) when tested by ASTM E96(Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials)8.To give you an example of what q perm is,7003 perms translates to1 Ib/,000 f² ( . 4 5 \kg / 9 2 . 3 \ m ^ { 3 } ) / 2 4 hours of moisture vapor as determined using the calcium chloride test ASTM Fl869 (Standard Test Method for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emision Rate of Concrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride).This means that moisture vapor can transpire through the vapor retarder but at an extremely low rate.A properly specified and placed vapor retarder willnot allow any passage of moisture vapor through penetrations in the slab or at the perimeter. Good detailing,seamingand sealing of the vapor retarder is necessry to ensure that the required performance is attained.A good,properly placed and installed vaporretarder can also help to limit radon infiltration through α slaband into the structure.

PLACEMENTOFVAPORRETARDERS

ACI Committe 3O2,"Guide for Concrete Slabs that Receive Moisture-Sensitive Flooring Materials"(ACI 302.2R-06) states in section7.2that some specifiers require concrete to be placed on the vapor retarder,and others require placement of α granular blotter layer between the concrete and the vapor retarder.As with many engineering decisions,the location of α vapor retarder is often d compromise between minimizing water vapor movement through the slab and providing the desired short-and long-term concrete properties.

There arebenefitsand drawbacks toeach method.Therefore, proper detailing is very important not only to the performance of a flooring system but also to the potential healthand safetyof building occupants.

The original method places the vapor retarder directlyonto the compacted soil.Next α 4"(1OO mm) granular base bloter layer is placed on the vapor retarder with concrete poured on top.Based on therevew of problem instalations incorporating this method,it became clear that the fil course above the vapor retarder can take on water from rain,wet curing,wet grinding or cutting,and cleaning.Unable to drain,the wet or saturatedfll provides an additional source of water thatcontributes to moisture vapor emission from the slab.These moisture vapor emission rates can be wellin excess of the3to5Ib/1,000f²/24hr (1.4to2.3 kilo/ 9 2 . 9 \mathsf { m } ^ { 2 } / 2 4 hr)recommendation bymanyof the floor covering manufacturers.

As result of these experiences,and the difficultyinadequately protecting thefillcourse from waterduring theconstructionproces, caution isadvised αs to the use of the granularfillayer when moisture-sensitive finishes are to be applied to the slab surface.The committes believe that when the use of α vapor retarder is required,thedecisionwhetherto locate the material indirect contact with the slab or beneath α layer of granularfill should be made on α case-by-case basis.Each proposed installation should be independently evaluated to consider the moisture sensitivity of

subsequent floorfinishes,anticipated proect conditionsandthepotentialeffectsofslaburling and cracking.Itisalso veryimportant tolap up the vapor retarder onto the vertical plane and to sealoff any penetrations throughtheshetingto ensure maximum protection against vapor and moisture intrusion.

Figure2.12-Decision flowchart to determine ifα vapor barrie is requiredand whereitis to be placed.Chart courtesyof American Concrete Institute (ACI-302.2R-06).

DRIVERSOFMOISTUREVAPOR

There are some very common reasons for having high moisture vapor emission problems in slabs.The most obvious would be α concrete slab without the placement of α vapor retarder.Without α vapor retarder there is nothing to prevent orlimit any moisture underneath the slab from passing through the concrete.Soil capillarity can contribute as much as12 gallons (45 L)per1,000 f² ( 9 2 . 9 m ^ { 2 } ) per day to unprotected slabs from saturated shallow water tables.Broken pipes or leaking sewerlines can saturate the slab without obvious loss of water pressure.Some industrial applications have sump pumps underneath the slab to remove heavy chemicals and water used to clean machinery and floors.The pipes forthese pumps can become corroded and eventually compromised by these chemicals and the soil underneath the slab can become saturated.Over-watered plant beds are another obvious contributor of water to building slabs as well.

Whenthere isporpressuredifrential,thegherure system wilforce moisture into the lower pressure system.Moisture vapor will consistently move from areas ofhigh pressure to areas of low pressure.If suffcient moisture volume exists at the source and the concrete slab has low resistance to moisture,then the potential forfloorcoveringorcotingfailureincreases.Undertheright conditions,there may also be sufficient moisture available to encourage the colonization of fungi.Indoor air quality and human health issues can be afar costlier outcome of excessive concrete moisture vapor emission than simply the loss of a floor.10

Figure 2.13－Placement of vapor retarder over bloter layer/ directly underthe concrete pour.

The chart (Figure 2.14)above helps to explain how temperature and humidity work to draw moisture into d structure through wallsand concrete slabs.If the temperature of the soil under a structure is 5 5 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （20 ( 1 3 ^ { \circ } 0 ) and the relative humidity is 1 0 0 % then the static pressure equals 0 . 2 1 4 if the building interior is at 7 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 2 1 ^ { \circ } 0 and the humidity .i 3 0 % then the static pressure equals O.1O8.This means that the moisture is driven into the building through the slab moving from the area of high pressure to the area of low pressure.Proper placement of α suitable vapor retarder can help to minimize moisture vapor transmission.

Building Interior Typically about 70°F(21 C) + 30% RH-108 psi static pressure Concrete Slab Soilat55°F(13°)+100%RH= 214 psi static pressure

Negative Hydrostatic Pressure

A common misconception points to negative hydrostatic pressure as theculprit in floor covering failures.Negative hydrostatic pressure can only occur when there is α physical water source higher than the slab.Therefore,it isveryrare thatanegativehydrostaticpressure condition exists on project.

TESTINGFORMOISTUREINCONCRETE

Manyvariablesafect theresultsof moistureand pHtestscommonly used to determine the moisture-related acceptability of concrete floors.Failure to run the test correctly canproduce erroneous and misleading results.Owners and contractors must understand that accurate floor tests must be conducted after the HVAC system is operating and the building has been at service conditions for 48 hours or longer.Most floors will not even begin to dry until the building has been enclosedand the HVAC system is running.

The buildingowner or general contractor should hirean independent testing agent to conduct floor moisture testing.Testers should be trained and certified.The test results should be reviewed by the design professional ora knowledgeable consultant to determine whether thefloor is readyto receive angpplied finish.

Most moisture tests,whether for moisture vapor emissions,relative humidity,or moisture content,measureqpropertythatchanges afterthetile orotherfloor covering is installed.Concrete atthe bottom of the slab in contact with the vapor retarder contains more moisture than the concrete at the surface.The moisture condition at theinterface between the concrete andfinish flooring changes becauseevaporationathesurfaceishinderedftertheflooring is installed.Thisistrueevenifthevaporretarderisproperly installed,the water-to-cementratioislesstanO.5O,andtefloor is protected to prevent re-wetting.Water moves from the bottom of the slab toward the top driven by differences in vapor pressure between the high relative humidityat the bottomand the lower relative humidityat the top (as noted in Figure2.14).Changes in temperature and relative humidity above and below the slab affect the static pressure and,in turn,the drive of moisture vapor.

Current practice (if required)is fortheflooring instalerto measure the moisture and pHof thefloor and submit the results to the general contractor or construction manager.Too often these results are nottransmitted to the design team,nor are the tests performed as the design team might have preferred. Moisture vapor emission rates are critical to the long term performance of a tile installation that incorporates α waterproofing or crack isolation membrane.Typical liquid applied waterproofing/antifracture membranes (e.g.HYDRO BANor 9235 Waterproofing Membrane or many LATICRETE floor coatings) require that the maximum amount of moisture in the concrete substrate not exceed5bs/100ff/hurs ( 2 . 2 6 \kg / 9 2 . 9 \ m ^ { 2 } / 2 4 hours) perASTMFl869(Standard Test Method for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of concrete subfloor usinganhydrous calcium chloride)or 7 5 % relative humidity as measured with moisture probes as per ASTM F2170(Standard Practice for Preparing Concrete Floors to Receive Resilient Flooring).

High alkalinity in conjunction with a high moisture vapor emission rate may affect the long-term performance of certain types of adhesives and "peel n'stick"asphaltic-type membranes.These adhesives and membranes may soften and deteriorate when subjected to high alkalinity.Alkalinitycan be measured by performingαstandard concrete surface pH test in compliance with ASTM F710 (Standard Practice for Preparing Concrete Floors to Receive Reslient Flooring).

The design teamshould not leave the testing to the flooring installer. Specifications should require the owner's testing agency conduct these testsandreportthe testresults tothetile instalergeneralcontractor or construction manager,and the design team.The specifications also should require that each test be conducted in accordance with ASTM standard test methods,or that any deviations from these methods be approved by the design teaml1.If high moisture vapor emissions are present on the project,the use of vapor reduction membrane (e.g. VAPOR BAN or NXT°VAPOR REDUCTION MEMBRANE) is reCOmmended.

COMMONLYUSEDMOISTURETESTPROCEDURES

Calcium Chloride Test ASTMF1869 (Standard Test Method forMeasuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride)

Acalcium chloride test measures Moisture Vapor Emisson Rates (MVER)passing through or from concrete and gives results measured in pounds of moisture per1,00 f² ( 9 8 . 3 { \ m ^ { 2 } } ) in α 24 hour period.Three calciumchloride testsshouldbeconducted forthefirst1,Ooof²(98.3 m²)and one additional test per1,000 f² ( 9 8 . 3 { \ m ^ { 2 } } ) within 0 6 0 - 7 2 （204号 hour time frame oras required by design team.These tests are "snapshot"forthe specific time/date when the testing takes place and results can vary when calcium chloride tests are performed on different dates.Calcium chloride tests should only be performed aftera building has beencompletely enclosed and the HVAC system has been operating for q prescribed length of time. Check with the manufacturer of the moisture test kit for complete instructions and recommendations.

Figure 2.16-Calcium Chloride Test in place(Photo Courtesy of Vaprecision).

Relative Humidity Testing ASTM F217O (Standard Test forDetermining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using In-Situ Probes)

Relative humidity testing (also refered toas in situtesting) involves drlling holeintotheconcreteandinsertingaplasticsleeve.The sleeve is sealed and pressure is allowed to equalize fora prescribed lengthof time.A hygrometer probe is inserted into the sleeve and the reading is taken.Instructions for frequency and location of testing should be folowed as recommended by design professional or engineer. Relative humidity testing can measure at selected depths ofthe concrete dependingonthedepth of the hole that is measured by the probe.

Figure2.17－InSitu MoistureTesting.

Theresultsof relative humiditytesting are measured in percentages A reading of 7 5 % roughly translates into3Ibs/1000 f² （204号 ( 1 . 4 {kg } / 9 8 . 3 { m } ^ { 2 } ) / 2 4 hours as measured byα ASTM F1869 calciumchloridetest (see2.4.4.1).Areadingof 8 0 { - } 8 5 % roughly translates into5Ibs/100f ( 2 . 2 \kg / 9 8 . 3 \ m ^ { 2 } ) / 2 4 hours).

Plastic Sheet Test ASTM D4263 (Standard Test for Determining Moisture in Concrete by the Plastic Sheet Method)

This test method is qualitative and only provides static results at the moment that the test is completed.This test method willnot provide quantitative moisture level results and is strictly used to determieif moisture is present.This is generally considered an outdated method to measure moisture transmissions.

口

EFFLORESCENCE

Efflorescence is α white crystalline deposit that forms on or near the surface of concrete,masonry, grout and other cement-based materials.It is the most common post-instalation condition in tile, stone and brick masonry instalations.

Efforescencecan range fromacosmeticannoyancethatis easily removed,to αserious problem that could cause adhesive bond failure or require extensive corrective construction and aggressive removal procedures.

Figure 2.18－ASTM D4263－Plastic Shee Method-18"x18"(45cmx45 cm) sheet of plasticis tightly taped to the substrateand alowed to sit undisturbed for 24 hours.If aterorcondensation isobserved,thenmeasureofmoisture apor transmissions is present.This test willnot provide aquantitative moisture apor emission rate. <br>Figure 2.19－Presence of Efflorescence on surface of concrete slab. Moisture migration throughthe slab cancarry destructive salts to the surface of the concrete slab. <br>Figure 2 . 2 0 - Common Sources of soluble salts

Efflorescence starts as salts,present in portland cement products,which are put into solution bytheaddition of water.The salt is then transported bycapillry action (or gravityon wals)toα surface exposed to theair.The solution evaporates,the salts react with carbon dioxide and α white crystalline deposit remains.Efflorescence can also occur beneath the surface or within ceramic tile or brick.Efflorescence occurs when the three conditions listed below occur.While theoretically efflorescence cannot occurif one condition does not exist,it is impractical to completely eliminate the confluence of these conditions.

Causes of Efflorescence

-Presence of Soluble Salts -Presenceof Water(for Extended Period) -Transporting Force(Gravity,CapilaryAction, Hydrostatic Pressure,Evaporationec...)

Presence of Soluble Salts

There are numerous sources of soluble salts listed in Table 2.20. There is always the potential for efflorescence when concrete and cement mortars,adhesives and grouts are exposed to the weather. Other sources of soluble salts canbe monitored,controlled or completely eliminated.

Efflorescence-Sources of Soluble Salts

-Hydration of Cementitious Materials (Calcium Hydroxide) -Calcium Chloride Contamination Sea Salt (Airborne,Sand) - Mixing Water(Calcium Sulfate or Calcium Chloride Water Softeners) -Cement Accelerator orAnti-Freeze Admixtures (Calcium Chloride) - Acid Etching and Cleaning Residue (Chlorides)

Cement Hydration-The most common source of efflorescence is from portland cement-based materials (e.g.concrete,cement plasters/renders,concrete masonry units,cement backer board units,and cement-based mortars,including latex cement adesive mortars).One of the natural byproducts from cement hydration (the chemical process of hardening) is calcium hydroxide, which is soluble in water.If portland cement-based products are exposed to water for prolonged periods and evaporate slowly,the calcium hydroxide solution evaporates on the surface,combines with carbon dioxide and forms calcium carbonate,one of the many forms of efflorescence.Once the calcium hydroxide is transformed to calcium carbonate efforescence,then it becomes insoluble in water, making stain removaldifcult.

Calcium Carbonate Contamination-A common source of soluble salts is either direct or airborne salt-water contamination of mixing sand and the surface of the substrate. Mixing water can also becontaminatedwith high levelsofsolublesalts.Typicallywater with less than 2,OoO ppm of total dissolved solids willnot have any significant effect on the hydrationof portland cement,although lower concentrations can still cause some efflorescence.

Presence of Water

While t is difficult tocontrol naturallyoccurringsoluble salts in cementitious materials,proper design,construction and maintenance of a concrete floor and its finish materials can minimize water penetration.Without suffcient quantities of water,salts do not have adequate time to dissolve and precipitate to the surface of a concrete slab or tile installation,and eflorescence simply cannot occur. Using less“water of convenience"can also help to minimize the occurence of efflorescence.

For exterior installtions,rain and snoware the primary sources of water.For interiorinstalltions,the primarysource is cleaning water. Broken pipes,poor soil drainage and inadequate rainwater evacuation can also contribute to high moisture levels within a building.

Sealers and Coatings

Water repellent coatings are commonly specified as α temporary and somewhat ineffective solution to fundamentally poor slab design and construction.In some cases,water repellents may actually contribute to,rather than prevent the formation of efflorescence.Water repellents cannot stop water from penetrating cracks or movement joints inthe slab.Asany infilrated water travels tothe surface by capillaryactiontovaporate,it isstopped byerepellentwhere it evaporates through the coating (most sealers have some vapor permeability)and leaves behind thesoluble salts to crystalize just below the surface of the water repellent.Thecollection of efflorescence under the repellent coating may cause spalling of the concrete.

Effects of Efflorescence

The initial occurrence of efflorescence is primarily considered an aestheticnuisance.oweveifementalueyilly water nfiltration）is leftuncorrected,continud efflorescencecan become afunctional defect and afect the integrityand safety of a flooring installation.

The primary concern is the potential for bond failure resulting from continued depletion of calcium and subsequent loss of strength of cementitious adhesives and underlying cement-based components The crystallization of soluble salts can exert more pressure on a flooring system than the volume expansion forces of ice formation.

Efflorescence Removal Methods and Materials

Priorto emovalof efflorescence,itis highlyrecommended to analyze the cause of efflorescence and take corrective action to prevent recurence.Analysis of the cause will also provide clues as to the type of efflorescence and recommended cleaning method without resorting to expensive chemical analysis.

Determine theage of the installation atthe time the efflorescence appeared.In buildings less than one year old,the source of salts re usually from cementitious mortars and grouts,and the water source is commonly residual construction moisture.The appearance of efflorescence inan older building indicates q new water leak or new source of salts,such as from acid cleaning residue.Do not overlook condensation or leaking pipes as qwater source.Location of the efflorescence willofer clues as to the entry source of water

Chemical analysis of efflorescence can be conducted by a commercial testing laboratory using several techniques to accurately identify the types of minerals present.This procedure is recommended for buildings with an extensive problem,or where previous attempts to clean with minimallyintrusive methods have failed.

Removal methods vary according to the type of efflorescence Therefore,itisof critical importance toevaluate thecause and chemical compositionof efflorescence priorto selecting a removal method.

Many efflorescence salts are water soluble and willdisappear with normal weathering or dry brushing.Washing is only recommended when temperatures are warm so that wash water can evaporate quickly and not have the opportunity to dissolve more salts.

Efflorescence thatcannot beremoved with waterand scrubbing requires chemical removal.The use of muriatic acid is q conventional cleaning method for stubborn efflorescence,however,even with careful preparation,acid etching can occur.There are less aggressive alternatives to muriaticacid,includingα less aggressive suamic

acid,available inpowdered form.Thisaciddissolved in water between 0 . 5 { - } 1 0 % concentration should be strong enough to remove stubborn efforescence without damage to the cementitious material.

Regardlessof thecleaning method selected,the cleaningagent should not contribute additional soluble salts.For example,acid cleaning can deposit potassium chloride residue (a soluble salt)if notapplied,neutralizedandrinsed poperly.

Acids should notbe used on polished stone or glazed tile,because the acid solution can etch and dullthe glaze or polished surface. Acids can react with compounds in the tile glaze and deposit brown stains on the tile surface which are insoluble and impossible to remove without ruining the tile.

Before applyingany acid or cleaning solution,always test asmall, inconspicuous area to determine if any adverse effects may occur. Just prior toapplication,saturate the surfaces with water to prevent acid residue from absorbing below the surface.While most acids quickly lose strength upon contact with α cementitious material and do not disolve cement below the surface,saturating the surface is more important to prevent absorption of soluble salts residue (potassium chloride) which then cannot be surface neutralized and rinsed with water.This condition in itself can beαsource of soluble salts and allow recurrence of the efflorescence problem intended to be correctedbythecidcleaning.

Application of acid solutions should be made to smallareas less than 10f² ( \mathsf { l } \mathsf { m } ^ { 2 } ) and left to dwell for no more than 5 minutes before brushing withgstiffacid-resistant brushand immediatelyrinsing with water.Always folow the acid manufacturer's directions for diluting,mixing,licatin,initialing,tralizioa rinsing techniques.

2.6 Suspended Concrete Slabs

Withadvancements inconcrete andconcrete placement technology the number of suspended (elevated) concrete slabs being placed is increasingaround the world.Thereare numerous types of cast-inplace and pre-cast concrete floor systems available that can satisfy any structural,span or loading conditions.Since the cost of afloor system is α major part of the structure and the building cost,then selectingthemost effctivefloorsystemis importanttoachieving overall performanceof the building.

Theabilityto customize load capacityto suit the usage requirements,deflection,inherentfire-resistance,ease of installtion, and theabilitytocreate long spans makes concrete the materidl of choice for industrial applications.Theabilityto finishthe floor with a wide variety of finish materials (including tile),permanently mount heavy machineryand thecapabilityto stand up to extreme conditions are added benefits of concrete.

Defining the proper suspended slab type,reinforcement method thickness,span,load bearing capacity,and allother performance requirements is the responsibilityof α qualified design professiondl and/orstructural engineerandis basedonexpected loads,usage, environment and much more.

We will takeα lookatseveral different types of suspended concrete slabs.

CAST-IN-PLACECONCRETESLABS

The main components and expenses of cast-in-place concrete slabs are the concrete,reinforcement (either mild or post-tensioned) and formwork.A major emphasis of the need for reinforcement in suspended concrete slabsis thefact that concrete,while strong in compreioniskinnsiledfexuratrengthsSteelio under forces of tension,so combining concrete and steel together makes for an extremely strong and versatile building material. By combining thepropertiesofreinforcing steel withconcrete,you achieveabuilding material that can easilyresist both compressive and tensile forces.

Benefitscan also beachieved byusing the reinforcing materials to place additional forces on the concrete to place it in compression.By compressing the concrete,additional tensile strength can be realized This additional tensile strength (stiffness)can provide anarchitect with theability to achieve longer spans with athinner concrete slab.Anotherbenefitof tensioning concrete raises thecapabilityof the slabtoresistthedevelopmentofshrinkagecracks.Intheory the more the concrete is squeezed together,the less likely it is that concrete slab shrinkage cracks will develop.1

Mild reinforced concrete slabs are poured in place,over framework, and around α steel reinforcement (rebar) grid.These rebar grids are most often assembled on site as defined by installation drawings withconcretepouredaroundthereinforcing.This type of reinforcement is most often used in steel frame (deck) concrete slabs.

POSTTENSIONED CONCRETE SLABS

Post-tensioning is gmethodof stressingconcrete in which tendons have tension applied after the concrete has hardened and the pre-stressing force is primarily gpplied through the end plates or anchorages.Unlike pre-tensioning,which can only be done at a pre-cast manufacturing faclity,post-tensioning is performed in-situ on the job site.

Concrete slabs usually utilize ultra high-strength steel strands to provide post-tension forces to the slab.Typicaly,these steel strands have α tensile strength \boldsymbol { \mathfrak { o } } \mathfrak { f } 2 7 0 , 0 0 0 psi (1,860 MPa),reabout 1/2"(12 mm)in diameter and are stressed to approximately 3 3 , 0 0 0 pounds (15,000 kg).

Fig.2.21-Post Tensioned Concrete Slab－Photo Courtesy of Suncoast Post Tensioning Company.

Reinforcing wire tendons are usually pre-manufacturedatplant, based on specific requirements,and delivered to the job site,ready to install.These tendons are laid out in forms in accordance with instalation drawings that indicate how theyare spaced,whattheir profile height should be,and where they willbe stressed.After the concrete is poured and has reached required strength (up to 5,000 psi [34.5 MPa]）the tendons are stressed and anchored.These tendons,likerubberbands,wanttoreturn totheiroriginal lengthbut are prevented from doing so by the anchorages.

The factthat the tendons are kept inαpermanently stresed state causes a force in compression to act on the concrete.The compression that results from the post-tensioning counteracts the tensile forces created bysubsequent loading (machinery,people, equipment,flooring,etc...).14

PRE-TENSIONED (PRE-CAST) CONCRETE SLABS

While pre-tensioning issimilartopost-tensioninginthefactthat steel tendons are exerting stresses onto concrete to increase tensile stregth,teodofpemntsetIin the steel tendons are stressed after the concrete hardens; in pre-tensioning,the steel tendons are stressed to 7 0 { - } 8 0 % of their ultimate strength priorto theconcrete being placed or poured into the molds (in the case of pre-cast concrete)around the tendons. Once the concrete reaches the required strength,the stretching forcesarereleased.Asthesteelreactstoreturto itsoriginallength thetensile stresses are translated into α compressive stress in the concrete.15

Pre-tension concrete members must be poured at a production faclity and shipped to the job site individually.Each member is then installed as required and supported by columns,beams or other structural member.

Pre-cast concrete planking is another form of pre-tensioned concrete The pre-cast concrete planks are tensioned prior to the concrete being poured.The concrete planks are then slipped together and mortared inplace.Typically { \mathfrak { a } } 2 ^ { \mathfrak { n } } (50 mm）thick concrete topping slab is required to createα monolithic concrete slab that is suitable to receive α ceramic tile,paver or other suitable flooring finish.

Advantages of pre-stressed concrete slabs is shallower depth forthe same deflection rating as α thicker slab and greater shear strengths than plain reinforced slabs of the same depth.

Figure 2 . 2 3 - Post-Tensioned Concrete Slab Tendon Anchor-Anchorsecures post-tensioningcables running throughthe concrete slab.Photo Courtesyof Precision-Hayes Internationdl.13 <br>Figure 2.24-Pre-Cast Concrete Planks.Planks rest and are supported byoflange attached to the stee girders.The planksare hoisted into place byαcrane and mortared tothe beams and to each other.Photo courtesy of Country Materials Corporation.16

STEELFRAME (DECK) CONCRETE SLABS

To achieve desired tensile strength in pre-tension and post-tension slabs,tendons are required that have stresses qpplied to them.In steel frame (deck)construction,the steel deck and aditional mild steel reinforcing will provide the tensile strength required for the concrete slab.Post-tensioning is typically not necessary. Moderprofiled steelpan sheeting,specificallydesignedforthe purpose,acts as both permanent formwork during concreting and tension reinforcement after the concrete has hardened.Shear connections are mechanical fasteners used to develop composite action between the steel beams and the concrete and maintain solid structural integrity.Atthis final stage thecomposite slab consists of a profiled stel sheet and an upper concrete topping which are interconnected in such α manner that horizontal shear forces can be resisted at the steel-concrete interface.17

Composite floor construction has certain advantages over typical concrete construction:

1.It is usedinverytallbuldings
2. I is lightweigh andtrong
3.It is prefabricated,soitassemblesquickly

Figure2.25－Showing placement of shear connections and edge detail

Figure 2.26-Concrete pour over suspended composite steel pan floorconstruction.

TILEINSTALLATIONOVER SUSPENDED CONCRETE SLABS

The TCNA handbook for ceramic tile installations recommends method F-l1l for installtion over asuspended concrete slab,or for installations where an unbonded mud bed is impractical,follow TCNA handbook for ceramic tile instalations method F-122 which requires an anti-fracture or waterproofing/anti-fracture membrane. Please reference www.laticrete.com/ag for further information on the LATICRETE recommended installation methods (ES-F11l and ES-F122)for the above mentioned TCNA handbook for ceramic tile installations guidelines.

2.7 Steel Coolers and Freezers

It is common to find steel coolers and freezers in industrial applications.There are some important guidelines to follow when steel or metal substrates are scheduled to receive tile finishes.

TEMPERATURES

Temperature isoneof thebiggestfactors toconsiderwhen installing tile in coolerorfreezer Installtion materils have working temperatures that must be adhered to for proper curing of the setting materialsand grouts.Instaling tile over q steel substrate that is colder than the recommended temperatures willprevent the seting materials and grouts from curing,or,cure overalengthy periodof time.Thiscandramaticallyaect the overal hrdness, bond strength,compressive strength,and long-term performance of the mortar and grout.The best alternative is to make sure that the cooler or freezer is turned off and allowed to warm to ambient temperatures.The surface that is to receive tile should be between 6 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 1 6 ^ { \circ } 0 ) and 9 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （204号 ( 3 2 ^ { \circ } 0 ) for epoxy adhesives (e.g. LATAPOXY 3OOAdhesive）and epoxy grout(e.g.SPECTRALOCK 2000 IG),and between 4 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 4 ^ { \circ } 0 ) and 9 0 ^ { \circ } （204号 ( 3 2 ^ { \circ } \complement ) for cement-based setting materials (e.g.37Ol Fortified Mortar Bed; or,226 Thick Bed Mortar gauged with 37Ol Mortar Admix,or 257TITANIUM"or MULTIMAX Lite and grouts (PERMACOLOR Select Grout).For installtionsreqingwaterprofing(e.g. 9235 Waterproofing Membrane or HYDRO BAN）oranti-fracture membrane (e.g. Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane)the temperature should be between 4 5 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 7 ^ { \circ } 0 ) and 9 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （20 ( 3 2 ^ { \circ } 0 ) 业

The temperature depending on the product that it used must remain within the prescribed range fora minimumof 24 hours after instalation.Rapid setting materials willspeed up the curing process beforegrouting.Once theflooris grouted,allowfora24 houror longer cure period.

CONCRETEORMORTAR BED SUBSTRATES

Once the mortar bed (e.g.37OlFortified Mortar Bed;or,226 Thick Bed Mortar mixed with 37O1 Mortar Admix) hardens and is cured properly,most waterproofing membranescan be installd directly over the mortar bed.Follow the membrane (e.g.9235 Waterproofing Membrane or HYDRO BAN) installation instructions for proper cure time of the mortar bed prior to application of the membrane.When using an epoxy setting material or other epoxy membrane,full cure of the mortar bed is required.

The metalor steel substrate must be rigid enough to withstand the weight of the mortar bed,any membranes,seting materials,tile and grout. A 2" ( 5 0 {mm } ) thick mortar bed weighs roughly 24 Ibs per f² (95kg per \mathsf { m } ^ { 2 } ) ：

STEEL OR METAL SUBSTRATES

There are two methods for the installation of tile over steel or metal substrates.The preferred method would be to tack weld or mechanically fasten 3 . 4 \# diamond metal lath complying with the current revision of ANSl AlO8.1(3.3 Requirements for lathing and portland cement plastering),ANSlA108.02 (3.6 Metal lath),and A108.1A (1.0-1.2,1.4 and 5.1).

Next,apply37O1Fortfied Mortar Bed;or,226Thick Bed Mortar gauged with 37Ol Mortar Admix to float and fillin the wire lath.Float surfaceof scratch/leveling coat plumb,true and allow mortar to set until firm.Once the mortar bed is firm and dry the installtion of the membrane (e.g.9235 Waterproofing Membrane HYDRO BAN or Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane),if specified can commence.Tile can be installed directly to the membrane using 257 TITANIUMor MULTIMAX"Lite.Grout using SPECTRALOCK 2000 IG and use LATICRETE Latasilforany movement orisolation joints.

An alternative method to settile over a steelor metal substrate is as follows:

1.Make sure the steel or metal substrate is cleaned thoroughly meets deflection ratings and can support the weight of the installation.Wash steel or metal with gstrongdetergent to ensure that all manufacturing oils are removed.Rinse completelyand allow the steel or metal to air dry. If posible scuffupthe surface to receive ile withsand paper or emery cloth and then re-wash the surface,rinse completely and allow to air dry.

Once the surface is dryyou mayset the tile usingan epoxy adhesive (LATAPOXY3OO Epoxy Adhesive).

Grout using SPECTRALOCK2OOO IG.Use Latasil for movement and isolation joints.

2.8 References

1.American National Standard Specifications for Installtion of Ceramic Tile.Tile Council of North America,Inc.Anderson,SC, ANSI A108.01.
2.TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation. Tile Council of North America,Inc.Anderson,SC.
3.TCNA Handbok for CeramicTile Istallation. Tile Council of North America,Inc.Anderson,SC.
4.American National Standard Specifications for Installtion of Ceramic Tile,TileCouncilof NorthAmerica,Inc.Anderson,C ANSI A 108.02.
5.The Basics of Concrete: Concrete l0lThe Basics.Retrieved November 5,2003,from www.epoxysolutions.com
6.Cementand Concrete Basics.Retrieved March12,00,from www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_concretebasics.asp
7．PRMConcrete Technical Info.Retrieved November1003 from www.prmconcrete.com/tech.htm.
8．What, Whyand How?:Vapor Retarders Under Slabs On Grade. Retrieved onSeptember20,2007,from www.prmconcrete.com/cip/CIP29p.pdf
9.GuideforConcreteSlabsthatReceive Moisture-Sensitive Floring Materials－ACl 302.2R-06.American Concrete Institute. FarmingtonHils, ,
10.Donnely,oistureVaportrusionIntBilingelo Fromor Through Concrete Slabs.Hemet,CA:George Donnely Testing and Inspections.
11.Design of Slabs that Receive Moisture一 Sensitive Floor Coverings,by Bruce A.Suprenant一 Concrete Intl. March 2003
12.An Engineers Guideto:EconomicalConcrete FloorSystems (n.d.).Retrieved September 4,2007,from www.cement.org/bookstore/profile.qsp?id=9354
13.Precision-Hayes International.Retrieved October 6,20,from https://precision-hayes.com/slonetimeuse.php
14.What lsPost-Tensioning?(2OO3).RetrievedAugust27,07 https://www.post-tensioning.org/
15.Cement and Concrete Basics－Pre-stresed Concrete (n.d.). RetrievedAugust23,2007from www.cement.org/basics/concreteproducts_prestressed.osp
16.Country Materials Corporation.Retrieved December 20,2019 fromhttps://www.countymaterials.com/en/products/ hollowcoreroofandflorssem
17.Lecture lO.1: Composite Construction－General (n.d.). RetrievedAugust24,20o7,fromwww.kuleuven ac.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wgl0/10100. htm#SEC1
18.Unbonded Mortar Bed Instalation Diagram Retrieved October 6,2019,from http://imiweb.org/06-130-0202-floor-tile-thinset-on concrete-or-cured-mortar-bed/

Section 3: Types of Wall Construction

3.1 Structural Considerations

As in Section 2with floorapplications,the same criteria for surface and structural considerations applies to wall applications.Basically, the wall must be structurally sound,dimensionally stable,meet the maximum allowable standard for deflection of L/36O for finishes undertotalanticipatedloadsandbefreefromanybond-breaking or bond-inhibiting substances.(Please refer to Section 2.2 for more information on structural considerations and live and dead loads.)

3.2 Wall Types

CONCRETEWALLTYPES

One of the most common substrate types that will be found in industrial applications is concrete.This section willexamine the various concrete construction types that can be encountered and their common characteristics.

Tilt-Up Concrete

Tilt-up andtilt-wallare two terms used to describe thesame process. Foratit-upconcetebling,teallreceedybing forms and pouring large slabs of concrete called panels directly at the job site.The concrete panels are then tilted up into position around the building's slab to form the wals.Because the concrete tilt-wall forms are assembledand poured directlyat the job site,no transportationof panels is required.Amajor benefit of this technique is thatthe size of the panels isonlylimited by the needs of the building and the strength of the concrete panels themselves.

Tilt-up construction panels can sometimes be extremely wide and/or tall ilt-upconcretepanelshave beenaslargeas69'(2lm)across and almost 96'(3Om) high.Thus,architects and tilt-up concrete contractors haveαgreatdealofflexibilityinplannngandcreating their buildings.

Atilt-up construction project begins with jobsite preparation and pouring the slab(s).During this phase of the project,workers instal footings around the slab in preparation for the panels.The crew then assembles the panelforms on the slab.Normaly,the form is created with wooden pieces that are joined together.The forms act likeamoldfor thecementpanels.Theyprovide the panel's exact shape and size,doorways and window openings,and ensure the panels meet design specifications and fit together properly. Next, workers tie inthe steel grid of reinforcing bars into the form.Inserts andlifthooksareembeddedforliftingthepanelsandthenattaching them to the footings,the roof,and to each other.

Once the concrete panels have hardened and the forms have been removed,the crewconnects the first panel toαcrane with cables that hook into the inserts.Workershelp toguidetheconcrete panel into position and the crane sets it into place.An experienced crew can erect as many as 30 panels in α single day

Figure3.l-Til-Up Concrete Panels erected into place.

Pre-Cast Concrete

Thepre-cast concretebuilding processis similartotilt-upconstruction but it addresses the challenges presented by weather.Forpre-cast concrete buildings,work crews do not set up forms at the job site to create the panels.Instead,workers cast concrete panels at a large manufacturing facility. Because the pre-cast concrete forms are poured indoors,this activitycan take place regardless of the weather conditions.After curing,the pre-cast concrete panels are trucked to the job site.From this point,pre-castconcretebuildingsare assembled in much the same manneras til-wa buildings

Thefacthatprecastconcretewallsare formedatamanufacturing faclity resolves the weatherissue,butpresents αdifferentlimitation not found in tilt-up construction.Because the panels must be transported,sometimes over long distances,this placessubstantial limitation on how wide or talleach panelcan be.It would be impossible to load pre-cast panels that were 6 0 ^ { \prime } (20 m) wide or 90'(30 m)long onto trucks and transport them any distance.For α pre-cast construction project,the panels must be smaller and more manageable toalow trucks to haulthemover the road to their final destination.This places certain design restrictions on architects and limits the applications where pre-cast construction can be used.

Cast-in-Place Concrete

Cast-in-place concrete is α common substrate for the direct adhesion oftile.Cast-in-place concreteis poured into forms(sprayed with formreleaseagents)where steelreinforcing has previously been placed.The condition of verticall formed concrete is extremely variable,due to the numerous potential defects that canoccur with mix design,aditives,forming,placementand curing.Theremaybe concerns with poured-in-place concrete in relation to thelong-term performance of a industrial finishes.

Some of these concerns include:

Laitance

As noted in Section 2.3,laitance is α thin layer of weakened portland cement fines that have migrated to the surface of the concrete.This condition is especially prevalent inverticallyformed concrete,where excess water migrates by gravity,aided bythe vibrationofconcreteand pressure to the surface against the wal form.The excess water gets trapped by the form where it stays until the form is removed.Once the forms are removed and the water has hadα chance to evaporate,it leaves behind α thin layer of what appears to beα hard concrete surface,but in reality is weakened due to the high water to cement ratio at the surface. Laitance has α very low tensile strength,and therefore the adhesion of tile willbe limited bythe low strength of the laitance.Laitance should be removed from the concrete surface priorto the installation of finishes.

Honeycombing

Honeycombing isqcondition where concrete is not properly packed or consolidated by vibration during the pour,where steel reinforcement is too close to the form,where there is interna interference with the flow of concrete during the consolidation procedure,or where there is poor mix design.These conditions can result in voids in the surface or core of the concrete.Surface honeycombing defects must be properly prepared and patched using αbondingagent toensure properadhesionto theconcrete priorto installation of the finish material.

Unintended Cold Joints

In vertical wals,cold joints are usually unintended,and can result in α weakened plane.This weakened plane is subject to random shrinkage cracking which could transfer to the surface of the finishes.These conditions usually result from delays or equipment breakdowns and can be prevented by proper coordinationof concrete delivery and proper maintenance and use of installation equipment.

Concrete Forms

Smooth formwork for concrete walls can result in α surface that is too smooth for direct adhesion of industrial finishes.A smooth surface provides litleor nomechanical keyforthe initial grab required when gpplying wet adhesives or coatings.These surfaces do not typicall facilitate absorption of cement paste and subsequent mechanical locking provided by the growth of cement crystals into theporesof thesubstrate.Mechanically grinding orvertical scarification can be used to achieveα beter concrete surface to accept direct adhered industrial finish instalation.Epoxy-based tile instalation materials (e.g.LATAPOXY? 3O0 Adhesive or LATAPOXY 210 Adhesive)do not rely on open pore structure to achieve exceptional bond and may be α better choice for this concrete finish.

Form Release Agents

There are α wide variety of form release agents on the market today.These products range from used motor oil or diesel fuel to sophisticated water-based products.Any type of oil-based or other potential bond breaking contaminant must be removed prior to the direct adhesionof fleandcoatings.

Curing Compounds

The varietyof materialsand theunique characteristicsof proprietary formulations require that you follow the same recommendations above for form release agents.

Concrete Additives

There are numerous concrete aditives,which,depending on the properties they impart to the concrete,could be detrimental to the adhesion of finishes to the concrete wall.For example,super plasticizers are α type of concrete additive that alows extremely low water-to-cement ratios and resultant high strength,without sacrificing workabilityof the concrete.This type of additive can induce bleed water,and facitate the formationof laitance.Similarly additives that react with free minerals in the concrete produce an extremely dense and water-resistant pore structure and may be detrimental to good adhesive bond.It is therefore imperative to communicate to theconcrete subcontractor,and to write into the concrete specification,which areas of theconcrete are scheduled to industrial finishes orcoatings.This communication can also help ensure that the concrete is fully compatible with the direct bond method ofceramictile installtion usingalatex-fortified portland cement-based or epoxy adhesive.

3.3 Concrete Curing

The installation of ceramic tile and industrialcoatings over concrete can only begin once the concrete reaches satisfactory cure.As concrete cures,it loses moisture and shrinks.A common misconception is that concrete cures completely and all concrete shrinkage takes places within 28 days of placement.This is simply nottrue.Thick sections of concrete could take over 2 years to reach the point of ultimate cure.28 days at 7 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 2 1 ^ { \circ } 0 is the period of time ittakes forconcrete to reach its full design strength.Atthat point,concrete willhave reached its designed tensile strength,and can better resist the effects of shrinkage and stress concentration.

Depending on the humidity and exposure to moisture in the first 28 days,there may be very litle shrinkage that occurs within that period.So while more flexible adhesives,like latex portland cement adhesive mortars can accommodate the shrinkage and stress that may occur inconcrete less than 28 days old,it is recommended to wait a minimum of 30-45 days to reduce the probability of concentrated stress on the adhesive interface or coating.Some building regulations may require longer waiting periods (up to 6 months).After thisperiod,resistance tooncentratedsressis provided bythetensile strength gainoftheconcrete,and itsability to shrink as qcomposite assembly.The effect of remaining shrinkage is significantly reduced byits distribution over time and accommodated bytheuseof low modulusof elasticity or flexible adhesives.

3.4 Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU)

Concrete masonry units (CMU)are suitable as q substrate for an industrial tileapplication.When standard aggregate and density CMUis built to plumband levelnesstolerances (including the mortar joints),no further preparation is needed exceptforfinal water cleaning,unless there is α specific need or specification for an anti-fracture (e.g.Blue 92Anti-Fracture Membrane)or waterproofing membrane (e.g. HYDRO BAN?) which typically are installeddirectly to the CMU(following the manufacturer's installation instructions).

Both standard andlightweightaggegateconcrete masonryunits present several other material specificconcerns.Typically,CU wals are fairly porous.Therefore,care must be taken to prevent possible pre-mature absorption of moisture (required for proper hydration of latex portland cement adhesive mortars)into the CMU.The CMU wall should be wiped down with a damp sponge prior to the application of any membrane or adhesive mortar.This will increase the working time of the membrane or adhesive mortar and also provide a final cleaning of the wall.

In some cases,where test panels may indicate poor adhesion at the CMU/adhesive interface,it is recommended to skim coat the CMU (1/8"{3mm} maximum thickness) with a latex portland cement mortar(e.g.257TITANIUMor MULTIMAX"Lite）to sealthe rough surface texture of the CMU.With the proper latex portland cement mortar,the thin skim coat willhardenquickly without risk of moisture suction.Another concern is thecohesionor tensile strength of the CMU material which may be less than the tensile bond strengthoftheadhesives;this is moreofaconcer with lightweight aggregate or cellular CMU.

Cellar orgas beton CMU(lsocommonlyknownasytong or Aerated Autoclaved Concrete [AAC]）is manufactured with materials that react with portland cement to create and entrain air spaces and reduce weight and density.This type of block typicaly does not have good tensile and shear strength ( < 7kg / \mathsf {cm } ^ { 2 } ) . Due to the low shearstrength,slightshrinkageofconventional cementmortarsmy tearthesurfaceand result indelamination.Similarly,thelowdensity (40-50 Ibs/f [ 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 \kg / { m ^ { 3 } } ] . of this material results in a coefficientof thermal expansion which is significantlydiferent from typical cladding materials which may cause concern about diffrential movement.The porous structure of this material also requires careful consideration to compensate forsuction of hydration moisture from cement-based adhesives. Most of the celular or gas beton CMU block manufacturers require the use of α latex portland cement-based skimcoat priorto the instalation of the tile dhesive mortar,cement-based render or membrane.

3.5Framed WallSubstrates

CEMENTITIOUSBACKER UNITS(CBU) OVER FRAMING?

There are α wide variety of product formulations in this category of substrates,such as pure portland cement,cement-fiber,and calcium silicate boards.This board type isdesigned for useon floors,walls and ceilings in wet or dry areas and is applied directly to wood or metal framing.Ceramic tile and industrial coatings can be bonded to it with dry-set,latex/polymer modified portlandcementmortar or epoxyadhesive by following the backer board manufacturer's instructions.

It is importantto note that manyof the other board types,including coated glass mat water-resistant gypsum backer board,fiber cement underlayments,fiber-reinforced water-resistant gypsum backer board and cementitious coated foam boards follow many of the same industryrecognized installation instructions.However,thespecific board manufacturer's installation instructions will take precedence overthegeneral installtioninstructions.Theceramictile industry supplies the following installation instructions for CBU applications.

1.Systems,induding theframing systemand panels,over which tile will be installed shallbe inconformance with the Internationdl Building Code(IBC)forcommercialand industrialapplications, or applicable building codes.The project design should indlude the intended use and necessry allowances for the expected live load,concentrated load,impact loadand dead load including the weight of the finishand installation materials

2. All CBU mustcomply with American National Standards Institute Inc.(ANSI) ANSI A118.9 (Standards for Test Methods and Specifications for Cementitious Backer Units)and ASTM C1325 (Standard Specification for Non-Asbestos Fiber-Mat Reinforced Cement Interior Substrate Sheets).CBU installation must comply with ANSI A1O8.11 (Interior Installation of Cementitious Backer Units).

3.Provide expansion movement/expansion joints for ceramic tile,stone and thin brick installations as perthe current TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Instalation－EJ171.

4.Fasten the CBU with7/8"(22 mm) minimum length, non-rusting,self-imbedded screws for wood studs.Fasten the boards every6"(15O mm) at the edges and every 8"(200 mm)in the field.Tape all the board joints with thealkali-resistant 2 " (50 mm) wide reinforcing mesh (provided by the CBU manufacturer) embedded in the same mortar used to install the eramic tile,stoneorthin brick.

5.To prevent water leakage through the walls,especially in high water exposure areas,pplywaterprofig membrane (e.g HYDRO BAN） directly on the CBU.Please refer to membrane manufacturer's writen instalation instructions.Some applications may require an additional vapor barrer installed behind the CBU.

6.Beforeapplying the tile it is essentialthat theCBUbe wiped down with a damp sponge to remove dust and to increase working/adjustabilitytime over hot,drysurfaces.This will ensure that the thin-set orlarge and heavytileadhesive mortar (e.g.257TITANIUM"or MULTIMAX"Lite)has anopportunity to hydrate properly without the CBUabsorbing the water.Aply the mortar or adhesive,using theflat sideofthe trowel to work the material into good contact with the CBU.Then comb on additional material with the notched sideof the trowel.Spread only as much material as can be tiled in 15-20 minutes. Use the correct size notched trowel and "back butter"the tiles,if

necessary,to achieve the correct coverage.It is recommended to pulltiles ocasionallytoensure proper coverage is beingachieved Once the thin-set mortar or epoxyadhesive has cured forthe appropriate amount of time,grouting can take place.

COATED GLASSMATWATER-RESISTANTGYPSUM BACKERBOARD

Coated glass mat water-resistant gypsum backer board should conform to ASTM C1178 (Standard Specification for Coated Glass Mat Water-Resistant Gypsum Backing Panel)and be suitable for UseQs qceramictile backerboard.This typeofboard shouldonly be recommended for use on walls and ceilings over wood or metal framing for industrial applications.Ceramic tile can be bonded to a coated glass mat water-resistant gypsum backer board with latex/ polymer modified portland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive by following the backer board manufacturer's instructions.

FIBERCEMENTUNDERLAYMENT

A dispersed fiber-reinforced cement backer and underlayment designed for use on wals and ceilings in industrial application.This board is typicallyapplied directly to wood or metal framing.Ceramic tile canbebonded to it with latex/polymer modifiedportland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive by following the backer board manufacturer's installation instructions.General interior installation and material specifications arecontained in ANSIAlO8.11(nterior Installation of Cementitious Backer Units) and ASTM C1288 (Standard Specification for Discrete Non-Asbestos Fiber-Cement Interior Substrate Sheets).

FIBER-REINFORCEDWATER-RESISTANT GYPSUM BACKERBOARD

Fiber-Reinforced Water-Resistant Gypsum Backer Board should conform to ASTM C1278 (Standard Specification for FiberReinforced Gypsum Panel).This board is typically used on walls and ceilings,and isapplied directlyto woodor metal framing in industrial applications.Ceramic tile is adhered to this board with latex/ polymer modified portland cement mortar or an epoxyadhesive by following the backer board manufacturer's recommendations.

CEMENTITIOUS-COATEDFOAMBOARD

Cementitious-coated foam board is α waterproof backer board constructed from extruded polystyrene and coated with a cementitious coating which is designed as α substrate for ceramic tile wallsin wetand dryareas and isapplied directlyto woodor metalframing.Ceramic tilecan be adhered with α latex/polymer modified portland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive.Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for installation instructions.

WATERPROOFCOATEDLIGHTWEIGHTFOAMBACKERBOARD

Waterproof coated lightweight foam backer board (e.g.HYDRO BAN? BOARD)is α waterproof backerboard constructed from extruded polystyrene and coated with waterproofing membrane which is designed as q substrate for ceramic tile wals in wet and dryareas and isapplied directly to wood or metal framing.Ceramic tile can beadhered with αlatex/polymer modified portland cement mortar or an epoxy adhesive.Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for installation instructions.

3.6 Substrate Condition and Preparation EVALUATIONOFSUBSTRATECONDITION

As previouslymentioned in Section 2.3,thefirst step in any installation isthe evaluationofjob site conditions.The extent of substrate preparation willnot be known until the surface is examined for compliance with industry standards for substrate tolerances,plumbness,surface defectsand substrate contaminates.

In relation to the overallcostof the installation,preparationof the substrate isneithercostlynortime-consuming.Howeverproper preparation is one of the most important steps that leads to d successful,long term installationand helps prevent "callbacks".

ADHESIVECOMPATIBILITY

As mentioned in Section 2.3,adhesive and coating compatibility plays an important role in determining adhesion between the substrate and the finishes being installed.Both the substrate and thefinishes must be compatible with the type of adhesive or coating being used and recommended for use in the environment in which it will be installed.Theabilityofasubstrate tobe‘wetted out' byan adhesive or coating is essential to good adhesion and important in determining the performanceof theadhesive or coating in bonding to the substrate.The highest strength adhesives and the most careful application to the best wall willnot overcome adirty or contaminated substrate.

SITEVISIT AND CONFERENCE

Prior to commencing any work,the contractor shal inspect surfaces to receive finsihes,and shallnotifythearchitect,generalontracto or other designatedauthority in writing ofany visually obvious defects orconditions that willprevent a satisfactory installtion. Installation work shall not proceed until satisfactory conditions are provided.Commencing instalation of work deems acceptance of substrate conditions.

SUBSTRATEPREPARATION

Wallsbstratestoeceivefinisheswillalwaysbexpoedtovaring degrees of airborne contamination,exposure to other trades and site-applied products.Thiscan include,but is not limited to, formreleaseagents,sealers,oranyother potential bond-inhibiting materidls.

Therefore,anytypeofoilyorotherpotentialbond-breaking contaminant must be removed prior to the installation of tile or coatings on concrete wals.These types of contaminants may require mechanical scarification,grinding,shot-blasting or other methods of mechanical removal.

Attimes,α high pressure water wash can be used to clean concrete and concrete masonry unit wals.The high pressure water wash (approximately 3,000 psi \{ 2 0 . 7 M \ P _ { 0 } \} , can very easily remove a thin layer of contaminated concrete or masonry.Once the wals have been horoughlyceaned,furtherevaluation isry.

Figure 3.2－High Pressure Water Washing.

CRACKS

Plastic and Shrinkage Cracks

Freshly placed concrete undergoes q temperature rise from the heat generated by cement hydration,resulting inan increase in volume. As theconcretecools tohesurroundingtemperaure,itontracts and is susceptible to what is termed "plastic shrinkage"cracking duetothelowtensilestrengthwithin thefirstseveralhoursordays aftertheconcrete is placed.Plastic shrinkage can becontrolled by reduction of ggregate temperature,cement content,sizeof pours/ members,deferringconcreting tocooler temperaures,dmpcuring and the early removal of forms.

Concrete also undergoes shrinkage as it dries out,and can crack from build-upof tensile stresss.Rapid evaporation of moisture results n shrinkageat an early stage where theconcrete does not have adequate tensile strength to resist contraction.Concrete is most susceptible to drying shrinkage cracks within the first 28 days of placement.After 28 days concrete typically developsadequate tensile strength to resist α more evenly distributedand les rapid rateof shrinkage.It is forthis reason that it is recommended to wait 30-45 days before application of adhesive mortars or coatings. Justlikefloors priortothe installtionofceramictile,treatany shrinkage cracks with an antifracture membrane (e.g.Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane) to prevent the transmission of cracks through thefinish surface.For the installation of othercoatings over cracked substrates,consult the respective product data sheet on how to properly treat or repair cracks prior to their installtion.

Structural Cracks

Cracks that are greater than an1/8"(3 mm)in width,are displaced or not in plane,and occur throughout the crosssection of a concrete wallor structural member,are an indication of astructural defectand mustbecorrected before the tileorcoating is adhered to the wall.Structural crackingon vertical applicationscan be repaired using low viscosity epoxy or methacrylate pressure injection methods.Once thecracksare stablized and properly repaired,the installation process can commence.

Cracks that are an1/8"or less(3 mm)in width are typicaly non-structural shrinkage cracks.While these types of cracks do not require structural correction prior to the installation of ceramic tile or paver finishes,they require isolation by means of α crack isolation membrane (e.g.Blue 92 Anti-Fracture Membrane).The crack isolation membrane is applied to the crack with α 6"(150 mm) wide treatment (3"{75 mm} gpplied on either side of the crack). Next,another layer of the crack isolation membrane treatment that is at leastthree times the widthofthe tile,isappliedover the previous layer (For more informationon this method,please refer to LATICRETEES-125at www.laticrete.com/ag).This treatment ensures that the tile willsit directly on the membrane and wil provide the fullcapabilities of the crack isolation membrane.An alternative method treats the entire vertical substrate with the crack isolation membrane to help prevent existing cracks and any future non-structural cracks from telegraphing through tothe tile surface.

PLUMBAND LEVEL

Itis imperative toevaluatehowplumbwallisbeforepping tile.The TCNA Handbook for ceramic tile instalations stipulates maximum variation in the substrate shall not exceed 1/4" in 10'(6 mm in3m)or1/16"inl'(1.5 mm in 300 mm) from the required plane for most tile installations.Attimes,the design professional may specifyα more stringent tolerance of1/8" in10 (3 mm n 3 m).This is especially true when installing large format tile or gauged porcelain tile,panelsorslabs.If this variation s not achieved,a leveling coat ormortarbed maybe necessary.For industrial applications,concrete,concrete masonry unitsand cement backer units over steel framing are generally the vertical substrates mos frequently used.At times,the substrate may require gminor skim coating of latex/polymer-fortified patching or skimming mortar (e.g.NXT? PatchorSkim)tofixanyminorirregularities,ll the way up to α fullrender application that includes α scratch and brown coat (e.g.37Ol Fortified Mortar Bed);in order to make the walls plumb and true.

Although some wals may be plumb,they may not necessarily be level.Tile installations can overcome wallthat is notperfectly level,however,therecouldbeconsequences tosetingtileon wallthat is notflat,themost serious being inadequate bond.

Tiles also have certain tolerances when it comes to their manufacturing process.For example,the greater the tolerance for tile thickness,the greater the chances are that the tile wall will appear wavy and irregular in profile.The qualityof the tile can also play an important role in the final appearance of the finish.

After the wallshave been brought into compliancewith industry substrate tolerance standards,the installation of tilecancommence. Prior to installng tileon wals,it is important toclean the wal surface just prior to instaling tileso that dust and debris will not affectthe bondofthe tile installation.

Specialty and large and heavy tile adhesive mortars (e.g.MULTIMAX" Lite) can alleviate small variations in the wal and tile tolerances without the need of a leveling coat orthick mortar bed.Follow the manufacturer's recommendation of thickness with these special setting materials.

Industrial wals that employ the epoxy spot bonding method (e.g.LATAPOXY? 31O Stone Adhesive.See Details ES-W260 and ES W215 in section 1O for more information.） generally tolerate greater deviations from aflat plane.Maximum deviation is αfunction of the recommended thicknessand working properties of the adhesives such as sag resistance.Follow the manufacturer's installtion instructions whenutlizing theepoxyspotbond method.

SURFACEANDAMBIENTTEMPERATURE

During the placement of concrete and installationof other substrate types,cold or hot temperatures may cause numerous surface or interal defects,including shrinkage cracking,α weak surface layer of hardened concrete caused by premature evaporation,orfrost damage.Priortocuring,extreme temperaturesof both the ambient air andsurface of thesubstratewillalsoaffect the normal properties of adhesive mortars and coatings.

Warmer ambient air and surface temperature willacelerate the setting of cement and epoxy adhesives and coatings.Cooler ambient air will requirea longer curing period.

The two general rules qre;

1.For every 1 8 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } （204号 ( 1 0 ^ { \circ } 0 ) below 7 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 2 1 ^ { \circ } 0 cement-based and epoxy-based materials willtake twice as long to cure 2.For every 1 8 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 1 0 ^ { \circ } 0 ) above 7 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } ( 2 1 ^ { \circ } 0 cement-based and epoxy-based materials willtake half as long to cure

Washing and dampening walls as described previouslywil not only help toremoveany loosecontaminantsoff the wal,but will also serve to lower surface temperatures in warmer climates,and lowertheabsorptionrateof the substrate.It is importantto follow the manufacturer's recommendations for temperature ranges for al installation materials.

3.7 References

1 Construction Photograhs.com.Retrieved October 3,2007 from www.tiltupnews.com 2TCNA Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installtion. Tile Council of North America,Inc.Anderson,SC

Section 4: Comparison of Alternate Types of Industrial Flooring

This section willprovide general information on alternate systems (e.g.epoxycoatings,terrazzo,stampedconcrete,polishedcocrete metal wall panel cladding and more) which can be used in industrial applications.Itis importanttonotethatalthough tile/stone flooring systems have their place in industrial instalations,thereare many locations within these institutions in which they may not be suitable. These locations are typically those areas that demand α seamless flooring thatcanoffer less penetrations for bacteria to grow and ease of cleaning benefits.The Tile Council of North America (TCNA) has conducted an extensive life cyclecost analysis (Tile Ils The Natural Choice: Environmentaland Cost Evaluation）comparing ceramictile tootherfinish flooring types.See Sectionllfordesign considerations when using ceramictile/stone finishes in medical, educational and hospitalityapplications.

4.1 Seamless Resinous Flooring Systems

Generally speaking,resinous floors canbe defined as"a floor which is finished with αresinouscoating thatis usedas thewearing surface".These resinous flooring solutions offers q varietyof unique designs and finishes foran increaseqesthetic value while stilloffering increased chemical and abrasion resistance.Gone are the days inwhich epoxyis theonlychoice tocompleteqresinous flooringinstall.Duetodvances in technology,andmodern dayscience,there are manyoptions thatcan be offered to the customer for their resinous flooring install.These options consist of epoxies,polyaspartics,cementitious urethanes,MMAs(Methyl Methacrylate's),andothers.Eachof these products bring unique qualities to the applicationand we wil briefing discuss each below.

General Information on Epoxy Coatings

It is importanttonote that epoxyflooring installedwithin industrial installations are ‘epoxy coatings'which are much different than epoxy painted surfaces.Forexample,warehouses,labs,hospitals automobile shops,car dealerships,loading docks,and many more applications use epoxy coatings.One manufacturer can define an epoxy floor bysaying,"Multiple layers of epoxy placedonafloor surface,regardlessof the kind of epoxyresinsapplied,provided that the total thickness ofallyers isminimumof 2 \mathsf {mm } ^ { \prime \prime } . This type of epoxy is considered an epoxy paint.Another manufacturer may calloutforspecific epoxy material inspecificnumberof layers to gspecificthickness.This is considered an epoxy coatings which carry theirown definition.Forthe purposes ofthis Technical Design Manualand given they typeof use these floors willbe installed in, we will be discussing the latter option,EpoxyCoatings.

Each epoxy coating material has its own unique characteristics that help to define exactly how these materials can and should be used A poor hoice of epoxy coating,based on the needs of the application,can result in rapid degradation of theepoxy.An important note,however,isthefactthatthere canbevast difference in performance properties with industrial epoxy coatings vs.'watered down'epoxies that are less expensive and perform at decreased levels.These diluted epoxy coating materials do not performas wellas the more expensive industrial epoxycoating materials which are installed as recommended by the manufacturer. For example LATICRETE offers some 1 0 0 % high solids epoxies that are formulated to have increased chemical resistance,resistance to yellowing and UV damage,and slip resistance to name few. Please ee the applicable product datasheet for aditional information on LATICRETE epoxy products.

General Information on Polyaspartic Coatings

Polyasparticsare relatively new in the world of decorative concrete coatings,onlybeing introduced in the earlyl99Os,but have been aroundindiferentforms inthecoating industryformanyyears. Polyaspartic coating evolved fromα class of material called polyurea, α durable fast drying material that has been used in many industrial applications as α corrosion resistant coating and repair material. Polyureas have two primary problems:Very fast seting (5-10 sec); and poor resistance to UV.Polyaspartics,α specific class of polyureas,have overcome these dificulties while maintaining the same strength,flexibilityand chemical resistant properties.

LATICRETE now offrs q varietyof polyaspartic products with the introduction of our SPARACOTE" Line.These polyaspartic products incude SPARTACOTE FLEXSB that is used in environment that can handle a strong solvent smell during installation and wants qrapid seting,fast drying system.For areas that requires low VOC and low odor the SPARTCOTE FLEX PURE and SPARTACOTE FLEX XPL can be used.These products with the CLINICAL PLUS" designation offers built in anti-microbial protectionand also are low VOC withlitle to no odor.All of these low VOC/low odor materials allows for an application in existingareas thatareoccupied without having toshut down the entire business.For instance,in industrial installations,an instaler could sectionoffaroom (be it anoperating room, classroomorhotelroom）to installthe coating while the daily operation commence just outside the door.Furthermore,α complete 3 coat system can be installed inα single day and returned to full service the next day.This is because of the uniquefast drying capabilitiesofpolyasparticcoatings,typically1-3hours between coats.This is very different from the standard epoxy coatings that couldtake8-l6hours foreachcoattodryortheurethanes coatings that can take 6-8 hours between coats.Additional benefits of polyasparticsareUVstabilitycolor/glossretention,noottire pickup,high chemical resistance,and highabrasion &impact resistance.Please see the qpplicable product datasheet for aditionalinformationonLATICRETEpolyasparticproduct

General Information on Urethane Cement Coatings Urethane Cement is basically α combination of α urethane based polymer binder andαcement based filer,although there can be additional filers added for performance and aesthetic reasons.It is commonly refered to as polymer concrete.There are many benefit of using urethane cement but it is important to remember that this typeof flooring is gearedtomore industrialapplications.Giventhis, aesthetics isn't typicallythe focus when choosing this coating.This flooring type is chosen based on it physical properties which sets it apart from the rest of the coatings.Urethane cement has exceptional thermal shock qualities.Areas that can experience drastic temperaturechanges inαshort amount oftime,like those common seen in commercial kitchen around fryers or in areas where hot water is pouredon the floor to clean,tends to weaken other coatings and can lead them to crack or delaminate over time. LATICRETE Urethane Cement products doesn't have this isue

Additionally,urethanecement isn't as efected by moisture in the concrete like the other resinous products are.Polyaspartics and epoxies have concrete moisture restrictions limited to3 to 5 pounds of moisture perlOOO square feet ina24hourperiodif testing in accordance to ASTMF1869(calcium chloride test）-or-lessthan 7 5 % of moisture when testing in accordance to ASTM F2170 (Concrete probe test).Having α moisture limit of 12lbs of moisture per l000 square feet in α 24 hour period Urethane cement can be placed on the concrete without addition prep. Urethane cement also have aditional qualities of high abrasionand impact resistance.

4.2 Polished Concrete Floors

Polished concrete is just as the name implies; concrete which is mechanically grinded,chemically hardened (densified),sealed,and then polished.This process produces α dense concrete which in most cases,inhibitswater,oiladothercontaminantsfrompeetrating the surface.Polished concrete does have its advantages when used within industrial facilities.FGSPERMASHINEpolished concrete system is a greatoption forabeautiful,estheticall-pleasing floor thatisdurableandbuilttolastRegularmaintenanceofefloring when using this system,does not require the use of harsh abrasives, solvents or waxes.Areas that are suitable to receive this type of flooringwouldbeeihen(ifplicable),bbyisitingoom and other qreas in which the flooring doesn't have to be completely sealed.

Polished Concrete Limitations

As in thecase ofanyfloor finish,polished concrete is notsuitable for all locations.Situations in which polished concrete wil be exposed to acid based chemicals and aggressive cleaning regimens can cause the concrete to become pited,start to powder or even crack.One dificulty with this happening with any industrial flooris the time required vs.time allotted to perform repairs. Concrete must be properly cured prior to be put back into service and in some locations time is verylimited.It isalso important to note that these floors,althoughbrasionresistant,alsorequiresegular maintenance.Most sealers used for polished concrete are topical and aremorelikely toshow wear in thehigh trafficareas causing the luster todull.Thismean thatqrecoatofthesealerorqregular maintenance coat of wax willbe necessary more often.The process used to create αpolished concrete floor eliminates the ability to directly bond αresinous coating or tiled flooring system to the concrete surface.Ifadifferentfloorfinish issought in the future al sealers would have to be removed and the extremelyhard,dense polishedoncretesurfacewouldhavetobeprofiledbygrinding shot-blasting,orbeadblasting

4.3 Carpet

Carpet is α textile floor covering consistingof an upper layer of fibers attached toαbacking.The fibers are generaly made from wool or a man-made fiber such as polypropylene,and usually consist of twisted tufts which are often heat-treated to maintain their structure. Carpet is widely used in office areas,hallways and other areas typically not subjected to water or vehicular traffic.Carpet is available in many colorsand configurationsand isan ideal product for usein areas which require sound control.

Carpet Limitations

Of alltheproductsusedtofinishfoors(i.tile,toneteo hardwood,laminates,etc...）carpet has theshortest ife.Whiletile or stone are expected to last 5O years,carpet has an expected life of 6 years,after which thecarpet is usuall replaced.While carpet typicallyhasthe lowest cost to istallofallofthefinishes,it would have to bereplaced approximately8times during theexpectedlife of tile orstone.According to TCNA"TILE:The Natural Choice一 Environmental and Cost Evaluation"carpet has 0 . 5 1 . 0 8 cost per year to maintain,while tile ranges from 0.32\ t 0\ 50.35$ per year.

Thecomfortofcarpetiswhat attractsowners toit.Mostcarpets offers a soft and cushioned surface when walking atop of it and, when compared toother flooring,is warmer withoutthe addition of qradiant system.However,carpet should notbe usedin areas subjected to liquids,chemical exposure,vehicuartffic, manufacturing,or other areas which would be dificult to clean, maintain,or where environmental considerations prohibit the use of carpet.

According to the American Lung Association "carpet can also have an impact your health.They may trap polutants likedust mites,pet dander,allergens,particlepoltion,lad,moldspores,picde dirt and dust.Some of the chemicals and glues used to make and install carpets are made with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which emits odors and pollutants.New carper installation also has been associated with wheezingand coughing in babies in their first yearoflife"(https://www.lung.org/our-ititives/healthy-air/ indoor/indoor-air-pollutants/carpets.html)

Section 5: Types of Tile for Industrial Applications

5.1 Selection of Industrial Application Tile Types

An industrial floor application canbe exposed to some of the harshest and most extremecondionsofanysysteminbuilding In generalntfrileslkil brick,packing house tile and porcelain pavers are suitable for these applications.However,there is no standard formula or recommendation for the selectionof these tile types.Selection must be made byan assessment of the individual finish material's functional and aesthetic characteristics in relation to the performance requirements.A discussionof the aesthetic merits of different finish materials is highlysubjectiveandbeyond the technical focus of this manual.This section willfocus primarilyon the functional criteria necessary to determine whethera finish material's physical characteristics satisfy the performance requirements of an industrial application's design and location.While every application can be unique,the following are criteria that can be used to determine general functional suitabilityof the finish materials:

SELECTIONCRITERIAFORFINISHMATERIAL

-Thermal Movement Compatibility With Adhesiveand Substrate
- Chemical Resistance
-Thermal Movement and Shock Resistance
- Adhesive Compatibilty
-Dimensional Stability(Heatand Moisture Insensitivity,Moisture
Expansion)
-Dimensionand Surface Quality/Tolerance
-Characteristicsof CeramicTile
- Low Water Absorption Rate
-Frost Resistance (Where Required)
- High Breaking Strength
- Slip Resistant

Thermal Movement Compatibility

The tile's rate of expansion and contraction due to temperature changes must be relatively compatible with the tile adhesive mortar. Significant differences could cause excessive stress in the adhesive interface and lead to delamination or bond failure (see Section 7). Minor differences in thermal compatibilityare acceptable,and the selectionoffexibledhesivesplayscriticalroleindistruing minor differential movement.Accurate prediction of thermal behavior is extremely complex,considering among other things,theamount and rate of temperature changes and the thermal gradients and lag that exists.Figure 5.l shows typical rates of thermal movement of materials commonly used.

Chemical Resistance

Thefinish materials must have good chemical resistance to prevent deterioration from notonlychemicals that maybeusedin cleaning and maintenance,but also alkali and acids associated with the manufacturing of products.

Thermal Shock Resistance

An industrial ile application can be exposed toαtremendous range and rate of change of temperatures.There is α difference between thermal shock and thermal movement.Thermal shock refers to the rate and range of temperature fluctuation within short periods of time.Thermal shock could be experienced byan industrialtile application during manufacturing processes (e.g.hot or cold liquids spilled ontoαfloor or areas where liquid nitrogen isused).The ile and adhesive foran industrial application must be able to withstand any thermal shock.

Figure 5.2-Result of impropertile selection for the application.The use of gsemivitreous tile-7% in absorption did not stand up to the demands of this installtion. <br>Figure 5.3-Clasification of ceramic tile by water absorption.(ENor ISO Standards).

Tiles mustbeable toresist thermal shock,freeze-thaw,bechemical resistant,dimensionallystable and resist moisture expansion for most industrial applications.

Compatibility with Adhesive

The suitability of adhesives for the proposed application must be evaluated taking into consideration the criteria listed in Section 7- Selection of Adhesives.Part of that process is evaluating an adhesive'scompatiblitywith the materid'scomposition,ufce texture,and other physical characteristics.Polymers of some latex additives not intended for industrial applications could be soluble in water and cause staining problems.This additive could contribute soluble saltsand result in efflorescence after repeated water infiltration to the adhesive layer.Depending on the texture and porosity of the material's bonding surface,certain adhesives may require more or less dwelltime in order to allow absorption of adhesive,α process known as“weting out"α surface.

Dimensional Stability(Moistureand Heat Sensitivity) Generally,the dense and compact nature of α low absorption material willimpartoodmensionalstabilitytomaterialby makingthefinish materialsuitableforan industrialapplication

Dimension and Surface Quality

Ceramictile,quarrytile,klinker tile,dairybrickandporcelain pavers are manufactured materials,and therefore dimensiondl. Surface tolerances required for direct adhesion can be assured by selecting materials in compliance with established standards. For ceramic tile the applicable standards would be ISO 10545-2 (Standard for Dimension and Surface Quality) and ANSl A137.1 (American National Standard Specifications for Ceramic Tile), which incorporates ASTM C499 (Standard for Determining Facial Dimensions).For thin brick,ASTMC1O88 Type TBX(Specification forThin Brick Veneer Brick Units Made from Clayor Shale)governs dimension and surface quality. Stone is generall fabricated to specification fora varietyof methodsof instalation.There are uniform standards for dimension and surface qualityof stone tiles or slabslisted for individualvarietiesof stone.However,theuseof stone is generally not acceptable for industrial applications

Characteristics of Ceramic Tile

In order to select the most suitable typeof ceramic tileor pavers for an industrial application,and to understand the technica considerations for adhesive compatibilityand installation,the specifier must have α general understanding of the classifications and physical properties of ceramic tile.

Water Absorption (Body of Tile)

The definition of water absorption is the measure of the amount of water that can be absorbed through pores of the ceramic tile. This characteristic is an indication of α ceramic tile's structure and overall performance.Water absorption is measured by ASTM C373(StandardTestMethodforWatersorption,Bukesity Apparent Porosityand Apparent Specific Gravityof Fired Whiteware Products)and ISO10545-3(Determination of Water Absorption, Apparent Porosity,Apparent Relative Density,and Bulk Density)asq percentage difference between dry and wet weight of tile.The water

Section 5: Types of Tiles for Industrial Applications

absorption characteristics of ceramic tile have significant influence on many other physical characteristics that are important to proper performance in industrial applications.Water absorption of ceramic tile for industrial applications should be 3 % or less. One important note on water absorption; today,porcelain ceramictile is the most popular choice. However,precision manufacturing processes now allow porcelain tiles with under 0 . 0 5 % (negligible） water absorption rates.While this creates an extremely durable product,it makes adhesionwithtraditionalportlandcementadhesivesdifficult, because these types of adhesives rely on absorption of cement paste to provide mechanicallocking of crystals within the pore structure of the tile body.Porcelain tiles require the additional adhesive power of latex thin-set mortars or epoxyadhesives inorder to develop the highbond strengthand flexibilityrequired for industrialapplications

Thermal Shock

The definitionofthermal shock is the resistance to internal stress when α tile undergoes rapid changes in temperature.The significance of this characteristicis that it providesan indication of good performance in industrial applications where there are constant cycles of thermal shock.Thermal shock is measured by ASTM C484 (Standard Test Method for Thermal Shock Resistance of Glazed Ceramic Tile)and ISO 10545-9 (Determination of Resistance to Thermal Shock)where there are no defects after 10 cycles of sudden temperature change to and from 60 to 2 2 0 ^ { \circ } \mathsf { F } (15 加 1 0 5 ^ { \circ } 0 .Industrial applications experience sudden temperature changes on αrepeated basis.Hot orcold liquid spils can subject the tileto thermal shock.Therefore,this consideration is critical in determining thesuitabilityofthetileforthis purpose.

Thermal Expansion/Contraction

The definition of thermal movement is the amount of expansion or contraction α tile undergoes from temperature changes. The significanceof this characteristicis that tile expands with temperature increases and contract with temperature decreases. The measurement of α tile's thermal coefficient of expansion provides the designer with the information necessary to determine compatibilityof the tile with the substrate and adhesive materials,to calculate movement diffrentials,and for the design of movement (expansion) joints.Thermal expansion is measured by ASTM C372 (Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Porcelain Enamel and Glaze Frit and Fired Ceramic Whiteware Products by the Dilatometer Method) and ISO 10545-8 (Determination of Linear Thermal Expansion)and expressed as the linear coeffcient of thermal expansion in units of in/in/F ( {mm / m / ^ { \circ } C } ) ：

Frost Resistance

Frost resistance measures theabilityof the ceramic tile to resist the expansive action of freezing water.This characteristic is dependent on the tile absorption rate and the shape and size of pores.It is measured byASTMC1O26(StandardTest Methodfor Measuring the Resistance of Ceramic Tile to Freeze-Thaw Cycling)and ISO 10545-12(DeterminationofFrost Resistance).In many cases, industrial applications wherefreeze/thaw may bean issue can include cooler and freezer areas.

Breaking Strength (Modulus of Rupture)

Breaking strength primarly determines resistance to the handling and installation process.This characteristic is α measure of the tile materialandnotthe tile itself.For example,ifyoucompared two tiles ofthesame material with one being twice as thick,both would have the same unit breaking strength,but the thinnertile would require 7 5 % lessload or force to break.Impact resistance in service(fullyadhered) is approximately10 times greater than the minimum standard.It is measured by ASTM C648 (Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength of CeramicTile)and ISO10545-4 (Determination of Modulus of Rupture and Breaking Strength) which requires q minimum strength forallfloor tile of 250 psi (1.75 Mpa).

Moisture Expansion

Moisture expansion is the dimensional change of ceramic tile as α result of changes in moisture.This is α significant characteristic for tile used in industrial applications because moisture expansion of clayis irreversible.It is measured by ASTM C37O (Standard Test Method for Moisture Expansionof Fired Whiteware Products)and ISO10545-1O(Determination of Moisture Expansion).Moisture expansion is directly proportional toabsorption;the lower the absorption,the greater the resistance to moisture expansion and vice versa.In order to accommodate moisture expansion,there must be properly placed expansion joints within the installation itself to prevent heaving or failure due to moisture expansion of the finish material.

Slip Resistance (Dynamic Coefficient of Friction)

Many tiles are manufactured for floor use in mostlydryapplications Tile used for industrial environments should be slip resistant and have a high coefficient offriction.Testing fordetermining the coefficient of friction should be performed to comply with ANSl A326.3,Test Method for Dynamic Coeffcient of Frictionof Hard Surface Flooring Materials.